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Rocha Romero, D., Ramos Valencia, J. E., & Ocegueda Hernández, M. T. (2025). Under the Shadow of Apprehension: Exploring Women’s Perceptions of Public Insecurity in Tijuana, Mexico. Revista De Antropología Y Sociología : Virajes, 27(2), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.17151/rasv.2025.27.2.12
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Abstract
This article explores how the perception of crime can weigh more heavily than actual victimization, particularly among women in urban contexts marked by structural violence. It adopts a qualitative exploratory-descriptive approach, grounded in the analysis of 233 in-depth interviews with women aged 18 to 50 residing in diverse areas of Tijuana. Although national surveys such as ENDIREH and ENVIPE are referenced to frame the broader context of gender-based violence in Mexico, the study’s findings derive exclusively from qualitative fieldwork. No quantitative analysis is conducted as part of the research design. The interviews, conducted with a semi-structured guide informed by an ethnographic glossary, capture the everyday realities, fears, and strategies employed by women across generations. The narratives reveal how perceptions of violence are shaped by age, life stage, and lived experiences. Young women (18–25) describe heightened fear and distrust, often tied to direct or observed violence during formative years. Older women (46–50) articulate broader understandings of violence, encompassing psychological, institutional, and spatial dimensions. This intergenerational lens enables a deeper reading of how women make sense of insecurity and navigate their urban environments. The findings offer valuable insights for policy, feminist theory, and the development of gender-sensitive urban strategies.
References
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0654-6
Bruton-Smith, I. & Jackson, J. (2012). Urban fear and its roots in place. En V. Ceccato (Ed.), The Urban fabric of crime and fear (pp. 55-84). Springer.
Calonge Riello, F. (2022). Estructuras del sentimiento de inseguridad. Posiciones ante la violencia y estratificación social en México. Espiral, Vol. 29, No. 83. (ene-abr), 149-186.https://doi.org/10.32870/eees.v29i83.7226
Ceccato, V. (2012). The urban fabric of crime and fear. En C. Dymén & V. Ceccato (Eds.), The Urban Fabric of Crime and Fear (pp. 311-339). Dordrecht: Springer. Netherlands
Chataway, M. L. & Hart, T. C. (2018). A Social-Psychological process of “fear of crime” for men and women. Victims & Offenders, 4(2), 143-164.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2018.1552221
Chiricos, T., Eschholz, S., & Gertz, M. (1997). Crime, News and Fear of Crime: Toward an Identification of Audience Effects. Social Problems, 44(3), 342–357.https://doi.org/10.2307/3097181
Condon, S., Lieber, M. & Maillochon, F. (2007). Feeling unsafe in public places: Understanding women’s fears. Revue Française de Sociologie, 48(SUPPL.), 101-128.https://doi.org/10.3917/rfs.485.0101
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of Qualitative Research, Techniques and Procedures forDeveloping Grounded Theory (4th ed.). Sage.
Cruz-Triviño, I. & García-Callejas, V. (2022). Comparativo de protocolos de atención a mujeres víctimas de violencia basada en género. “De la política pública a la realidad”. Revista Criminalidad, 64(1), 9-33.
Day, K., Stump, C., & Carreon, D. (2003). Confrontation and loss of control: Masculinity and men’s fear in public space. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(3), 311-322.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(03)00024-0
Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (2018). The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. Fifth Edition.Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Denzin, N. K. (2018). Performing Ethnography: Staging Resistance. Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies, 18(6), 453-462. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708618787460
Dymén, C. & Ceccato, V. (2012). An international perspective of the gender dimension planning for urban safety. En V. Ceccato (Ed.), The Urban fabric of crime and fear (pp.311-339). Springer.
ENDIREH. Encuesta Nacional sobre la Dinámica de las Relaciones en los Hogares (2016).https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/endireh/2016/
ENDIREH. Encuesta Nacional sobre la Dinámica de las Relaciones en los Hogares. (2021).https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/endireh/2021/doc/nacional_resultados.pdf
ENVIPE. Encuesta Nacional de Victimización y Percepción sobre Seguridad Pública (2022).https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/envipe/2022/
Ferraro, K. F. & LaGrange, R. (1987). The measurement of fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 57(1), 70-97.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1987.tb01181.x
Flick, U. (2018). The Concepts of Qualitative Data: Challenges in Neoliberal Times for Qualitative Inquiry. Qualitative Inquiry, 25(8), 713-720. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800418809132
Fuentes Romero, D. y González Hernández I. (2008). Muertes por violencia en las mujeres de Tijuana, Baja California, 1999-2005. Papeles de Población, 14(56), 257–282. https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-74252008000200012
Garfias Royo, M., Parikh, P. & Belur, J. (2020). Using heat maps to identify areas prone to violence against women in the public sphere. Crime Science, 9(15), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-020-00125-6
Garfias Royo, M., Parikh, P., Walker, J. and Belur, J. (2023). The Response to violence against women and fear of violence and the coping strategies of women in Corregidora, México. Cities, 132, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.104113
Gidong, B. & Ha, M. (2023) Environmental factors affecting fear of crime among young women on streets in Seoul. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 22(5) https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2172338
Gordon, M. T. & Riger, S. (1989). The Female Fear. The University of Illinois. Hale, C. (1996). Fear of Crime: A Review of the Literature. International Review of Victimology, 4(2), 79–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/026975809600400201
Jansson, M., Wendt, P., & Åström, A. (2017). Place and Displacement: Exhibiting Architecture.Lars Müller Publishers.
Jenkins, P. & Philips, I. (2017). Urban blight and public health: Addressing the impact of substandard housing, abandoned buildings, and vacant lots. Journal of Urban Health, 94(2), 230-242.
Jiménez, W. & Rentería, R. (2019). Aportes de la complejidad para la comprensión de las dinámicas de la violencia en las ciudades. Caso de estudio: las ciudades de Bello y Palmira, Colombia (años 2010-2016). Revista Criminalidad, 62(1): 9-43
MACMILLAN, R., NIEROBISZ, A., & WELSH, S. (2000). Experiencing the Streets: Harassment and Perceptions of Safety among Women. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37(3), 306–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427800037003003
Madriz, E. I. (1997). Images of criminals and victims: A Study on Women’s Fear and Social Control. Gender & Society, 11(3), 342–356.
https://doi.org/10.1177/089124397011003005
Marganski, A. J. (2019). Making a murderer: The importance of gender and violence against women in mass murder events. Sociology Compass, 13(9), e12730.
Mellgren, Caroline, Mika Andersson & Anna-Karin Ivert (2017): “It Happens All the Time”: Women’s Experiences and Normalization of Sexual Harassment in Public Space, Women & Criminal Justice, 28(4), 262-281, https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2017.1
372328
Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook and the coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Leech, N. L. (2007). Sampling designs in qualitative research: Making the sampling process more public. Qualitative Report, 12(2), 238-254.
Pain, R. (2001). Gender, race, age and fear in the city. Urban Studies, 38(5-6), 899-913. https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098012004659
Patton, M. (2014). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice.Sage publications.
Rader, Nicole E., Rogers, Sarah A. and Cossman Jeralynn S. (2022). Physical Health, mental health, and fear of crime among college students: A consideration of sex differences, Violence Against Women, Vol. 26 (1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219826749 Skogan WG, Maxfield MG. Coping with Crime and Neighborhood Reaction. Beverly Hills, CA:Sage; 1981.
Stafford, Mai, Chandola Tarani and Marmot Michael (2007). Association between fear of crime and mental health and physical function. American Journal of Public Health, 97(11), 2076-2081. 10.2105/AJPH.2006.097154
Stanko, E. A. (1995). Women, Crime, and Fear. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 539(1), 46–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716295539001004
Sutton, Robbie M. and Farrall S. (2005). Gender, socially desirable responding and the fear of crime, British Journal of Criminology, Volume 45, Issue 2, 212-224. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh084
Urbalejo Castorena, Olga L. (2021). La Marca especial de la migración al este de Tijuana. Apuntes sobre crecimiento urbano y exclusión en una ciudad (des) ordenada, Revista Investigaciones Geográficas, No. 61, 44-56. https://doi.org/10.5354/0719-5370.2021.61791
Villeseche, F., Meliou, E., & Jha, H. K. (2022). Feminism in women’s business networks: A freedom-centred perspective. human relations, 75(10), 1903-1927.
Weisburd D, Groff ER, Yang SM. (2014). Understanding and controlling hot spots of crime: the importance of formal and informal social controls. Prevention Science. 201;15(1):31–43.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-012-0351-9
Yates Anna and Ceccato Vania (2020). Individual and spatial dimensions of women’s fear of crime: a Scandinavian study case, International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 44(4) 277-292.https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2020.1719531
Zhang, F., Fan, Z., Kang, Y., Hu, Y., & Ratti, C. (2021). “Perception bias”: Deciphering a mismatch between urban crime and perception of safety. Landscape and Urban Planning, 207,104003.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0654-6
Bruton-Smith, I. & Jackson, J. (2012). Urban fear and its roots in place. En V. Ceccato (Ed.), The Urban fabric of crime and fear (pp. 55-84). Springer.
Calonge Riello, F. (2022). Estructuras del sentimiento de inseguridad. Posiciones ante la violencia y estratificación social en México. Espiral, Vol. 29, No. 83. (ene-abr), 149-186.https://doi.org/10.32870/eees.v29i83.7226
Ceccato, V. (2012). The urban fabric of crime and fear. En C. Dymén & V. Ceccato (Eds.), The Urban Fabric of Crime and Fear (pp. 311-339). Dordrecht: Springer. Netherlands
Chataway, M. L. & Hart, T. C. (2018). A Social-Psychological process of “fear of crime” for men and women. Victims & Offenders, 4(2), 143-164.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2018.1552221
Chiricos, T., Eschholz, S., & Gertz, M. (1997). Crime, News and Fear of Crime: Toward an Identification of Audience Effects. Social Problems, 44(3), 342–357.https://doi.org/10.2307/3097181
Condon, S., Lieber, M. & Maillochon, F. (2007). Feeling unsafe in public places: Understanding women’s fears. Revue Française de Sociologie, 48(SUPPL.), 101-128.https://doi.org/10.3917/rfs.485.0101
Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of Qualitative Research, Techniques and Procedures forDeveloping Grounded Theory (4th ed.). Sage.
Cruz-Triviño, I. & García-Callejas, V. (2022). Comparativo de protocolos de atención a mujeres víctimas de violencia basada en género. “De la política pública a la realidad”. Revista Criminalidad, 64(1), 9-33.
Day, K., Stump, C., & Carreon, D. (2003). Confrontation and loss of control: Masculinity and men’s fear in public space. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(3), 311-322.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(03)00024-0
Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (2018). The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. Fifth Edition.Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Denzin, N. K. (2018). Performing Ethnography: Staging Resistance. Cultural Studies ↔ Critical Methodologies, 18(6), 453-462. https://doi.org/10.1177/1532708618787460
Dymén, C. & Ceccato, V. (2012). An international perspective of the gender dimension planning for urban safety. En V. Ceccato (Ed.), The Urban fabric of crime and fear (pp.311-339). Springer.
ENDIREH. Encuesta Nacional sobre la Dinámica de las Relaciones en los Hogares (2016).https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/endireh/2016/
ENDIREH. Encuesta Nacional sobre la Dinámica de las Relaciones en los Hogares. (2021).https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/endireh/2021/doc/nacional_resultados.pdf
ENVIPE. Encuesta Nacional de Victimización y Percepción sobre Seguridad Pública (2022).https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/envipe/2022/
Ferraro, K. F. & LaGrange, R. (1987). The measurement of fear of crime. Sociological Inquiry, 57(1), 70-97.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1987.tb01181.x
Flick, U. (2018). The Concepts of Qualitative Data: Challenges in Neoliberal Times for Qualitative Inquiry. Qualitative Inquiry, 25(8), 713-720. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800418809132
Fuentes Romero, D. y González Hernández I. (2008). Muertes por violencia en las mujeres de Tijuana, Baja California, 1999-2005. Papeles de Población, 14(56), 257–282. https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1405-74252008000200012
Garfias Royo, M., Parikh, P. & Belur, J. (2020). Using heat maps to identify areas prone to violence against women in the public sphere. Crime Science, 9(15), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-020-00125-6
Garfias Royo, M., Parikh, P., Walker, J. and Belur, J. (2023). The Response to violence against women and fear of violence and the coping strategies of women in Corregidora, México. Cities, 132, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.104113
Gidong, B. & Ha, M. (2023) Environmental factors affecting fear of crime among young women on streets in Seoul. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 22(5) https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2172338
Gordon, M. T. & Riger, S. (1989). The Female Fear. The University of Illinois. Hale, C. (1996). Fear of Crime: A Review of the Literature. International Review of Victimology, 4(2), 79–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/026975809600400201
Jansson, M., Wendt, P., & Åström, A. (2017). Place and Displacement: Exhibiting Architecture.Lars Müller Publishers.
Jenkins, P. & Philips, I. (2017). Urban blight and public health: Addressing the impact of substandard housing, abandoned buildings, and vacant lots. Journal of Urban Health, 94(2), 230-242.
Jiménez, W. & Rentería, R. (2019). Aportes de la complejidad para la comprensión de las dinámicas de la violencia en las ciudades. Caso de estudio: las ciudades de Bello y Palmira, Colombia (años 2010-2016). Revista Criminalidad, 62(1): 9-43
MACMILLAN, R., NIEROBISZ, A., & WELSH, S. (2000). Experiencing the Streets: Harassment and Perceptions of Safety among Women. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 37(3), 306–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427800037003003
Madriz, E. I. (1997). Images of criminals and victims: A Study on Women’s Fear and Social Control. Gender & Society, 11(3), 342–356.
https://doi.org/10.1177/089124397011003005
Marganski, A. J. (2019). Making a murderer: The importance of gender and violence against women in mass murder events. Sociology Compass, 13(9), e12730.
Mellgren, Caroline, Mika Andersson & Anna-Karin Ivert (2017): “It Happens All the Time”: Women’s Experiences and Normalization of Sexual Harassment in Public Space, Women & Criminal Justice, 28(4), 262-281, https://doi.org/10.1080/08974454.2017.1
372328
Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook and the coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Leech, N. L. (2007). Sampling designs in qualitative research: Making the sampling process more public. Qualitative Report, 12(2), 238-254.
Pain, R. (2001). Gender, race, age and fear in the city. Urban Studies, 38(5-6), 899-913. https://doi.org/10.1080/0042098012004659
Patton, M. (2014). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice.Sage publications.
Rader, Nicole E., Rogers, Sarah A. and Cossman Jeralynn S. (2022). Physical Health, mental health, and fear of crime among college students: A consideration of sex differences, Violence Against Women, Vol. 26 (1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219826749 Skogan WG, Maxfield MG. Coping with Crime and Neighborhood Reaction. Beverly Hills, CA:Sage; 1981.
Stafford, Mai, Chandola Tarani and Marmot Michael (2007). Association between fear of crime and mental health and physical function. American Journal of Public Health, 97(11), 2076-2081. 10.2105/AJPH.2006.097154
Stanko, E. A. (1995). Women, Crime, and Fear. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 539(1), 46–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716295539001004
Sutton, Robbie M. and Farrall S. (2005). Gender, socially desirable responding and the fear of crime, British Journal of Criminology, Volume 45, Issue 2, 212-224. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azh084
Urbalejo Castorena, Olga L. (2021). La Marca especial de la migración al este de Tijuana. Apuntes sobre crecimiento urbano y exclusión en una ciudad (des) ordenada, Revista Investigaciones Geográficas, No. 61, 44-56. https://doi.org/10.5354/0719-5370.2021.61791
Villeseche, F., Meliou, E., & Jha, H. K. (2022). Feminism in women’s business networks: A freedom-centred perspective. human relations, 75(10), 1903-1927.
Weisburd D, Groff ER, Yang SM. (2014). Understanding and controlling hot spots of crime: the importance of formal and informal social controls. Prevention Science. 201;15(1):31–43.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-012-0351-9
Yates Anna and Ceccato Vania (2020). Individual and spatial dimensions of women’s fear of crime: a Scandinavian study case, International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 44(4) 277-292.https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2020.1719531
Zhang, F., Fan, Z., Kang, Y., Hu, Y., & Ratti, C. (2021). “Perception bias”: Deciphering a mismatch between urban crime and perception of safety. Landscape and Urban Planning, 207,104003.
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