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Publication Date: 2013-06-21
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Osorio, J. H., & Aguirre, C. A. (2013). Relationship between the triglycerides metabolism and atherosclerosis in familial hypercholesterolemia. Biosalud, 12(1), 49–58. Retrieved from https://revistasojs.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/biosalud/article/view/4706
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Abstract
Familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) is a genetic disorder, with the heterozygous form affecting one in 500 deliveries. FH is associated with atherosclerosis due to elevated LDL concentrations but also, triglyceride levels and postprandial hypertriglyceridemia have been reported as possible independent risk factors for atherosclerosis. In the present review article available literature in the data basesinformation from database PubMed as well as historical articles, texts and references cited in public published papers to date were analyzed, searching a possible relationship between triglyceride metabolism in FH and atherosclerosis. The information obtained was organizedPertinent information related with the objectives proposed in the present review was found and analyzed. It was then divided into three sections as follows: triglyceride metabolism, triglyceride metabolism in familiar hypercholesterolaemia, triglycerides in familiar hypercholesterolaemia and atherosclerosis. Among the conclusions iIt was found that can be concluded that high levels of triglycerides are associated to with high risk of early coronary heart disease in FH patients.
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References
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Millán J, Alegría E, Álvarez L. Abordaje de la dislipidemia. Sociedad Española de arteriosclerosis. Clínica e investigación en arteriosclerosis. 2011; 23(6):278-288.
Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis. Las enfermedades cardiovasculares y sus factores de riesgo en España: hechos y cifras. Informe SEA 2007. Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis; 2007.
Björn L, Leren TP, Ose L, Hamsten A. A functional polymorphism in the promoter region of the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP -493G/T) influences lipoprotein phenotype in familial hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000; 20:1784-8.
Kolovou G, Daskalova D, Mastorakou I. Regression of Achilles tendon xanthomas evaluated by CT scan after hypolipidemic treatment with simvastatin. Angiology. 2004; 55:335-9.
Hopkins PN. Familial hypercholesterolemia—improving treatment and meeting guidelines. Int J Cardiol. 2003; 89:13-23.
Bansal S, Buring JE, Rifai N, Mora S, Sacks FM, Ridker PM. Fasting compared with non-fasting triglycerides and risk of cardiovascular events in women. JAMA. 2007; 298:309-6.
Sarwar N, Danesh J, Eiriksdottir G, Sigurdsson G, Wareham N, Bingham S. Triglycerides and the risk of coronary heart disease: 10,158 incident cases among 262,525 participants in 29 Western prospective studies. Circulation. 2007; 115:450-8.
Real JT, Martínez-Hervas S, Tormos MC, Domenech E, Pallardo FV, Saez-Tormo Gl. Increased oxidative stress levels and normal antioxidante enzyme activity in circulating mononuclear cells from patinets of familial hypercho-lesterolemia. Metabolism. 2010; 59:293-8.
Jansen AC, van Wissen S, Defesche JC. Phenotypic variability in familial hypercholesterolemia: an update. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2002; 13:165-71.
Aalst-Cohen ES, Jansen AC, de Jongh S. Clinical, diagnostic, and therapeutic aspects of familial hypercholesterolemia. Semin Vasc Med. 2004; 4:31-41.
Kolovou G, Daskalova D, Anagnostopoulou K. Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia in patients with Tangier disease. J Clin Pathol. 2003; 56:937-941.
Graham I, Atar D, Borch-Johnsen K, Boysen G, Burell G, Cifkova R. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: executive summary. Eur Heart J. 2007; 28:2375-414.
García-García AB, Real JT, Puig O, Cebolla E, Marín-García P, Martínez Ferrandis J. Molecular genetics of familial hypercholesterolemia in Spain: Ten novel LDLR mutations and population analysis. Hum Mutat. 2001; 18:458-9.
Chapman JM, Guerin M, Bruckert E. Role of anomalies of low density lipoproteins (LDL) in atherogenicity. Bull Acad Natl Med. 2001; 185:35-9.
Tan KC, Cooper MB, Ling KL. Fasting and postprandial determinants for the occurrence of small dense LDL species in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients with and without hypertriglyceridaemia: the involvement of insulin, insulin precursor species and insulin resistance. Atherosclerosis. 2005; 113:273-87.
Leigh SEA, Foster AH, Whittall RA, Hubbart CS, Humprhies SE. Update and Analysis of the University College London Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor Familial Hypercholesterolemia Database. Ann Hum Genet. 2008; 72:485-98.
Morrison A, Hokanson J. The independent relation ship between triglycerides and coronary heart disease. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2009; 5:89-95.
Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN, Brewer Jr HB. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guide lines. Circulation. 2004; 110:227-39.
Chan DC, Watts GF, Barrett PH, O’Neill FH, Redgrave TG, Thompson GR. Relationships between cholesterol homoeostasis and triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein remnant metabolism in the metabolic syndrome. Clin Sci. 2003; 104:383-8.
Ayyobi AF, Brunzell JD. Lipoprotein distribution in the metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and familial combined hyperlipidemia. Am J Cardiol. 2003; 92:J27-33.
McTaggart F, Jones P. Effects of statins on high - density lipoprotein: a potential contribution to cardiovascular benefit. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2008; 22:321-38.
Rodríguez-Mañas L, El-Assar M, Vallejo S, López-Dóriga P, Solís J, Petidier R. Endothelial dysfunction in aged humans is related with oxidative stress and vascular inflammation. Aging Cell. 2009; 8:226-38.
Schiffrin EL. Oxidative stress, nitric oxide synthase, and superoxide dismutase: a matter of imbalance underlies endothelial dysfunction in the human coronary circulation. Hypertension. 2008; 51:31-2.
Sharrett AR, Heiss G, Chambless LEl. Metabolic and lifestyle determinants of postprandial lipemia differ from those of fasting triglycerides: the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001; 21:275-81.
Herd SL, Kiens B, Boobis LH. Moderate exercise, postprandial lipemia, and skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase activity. Metabolism. 2001; 50:756-62.
Gandotra P, Miller M. The role of triglycerides in cardiovascular risk. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2008; 10:505-11.
Gaddi A, Cicero AF, Odoo FO, Poli AA, Paoletti R. Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Diseases Study Group. Practical guidelines for familial combined hyperlipidemia diagnosis: an up-date. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2007; 3:877-86.
Turley SD. Cholesterol metabolism and therapeutic targets: rationale for targeting multiple metabolic pathways. Clin Cardiol. 2004; 27(Suppl 3):III16-21.
Nasiff-Hadad A, Jiménez-Acosta SM. Modification of a National Diet and Lifestyle Toward Wild-Type Foods. The Cuban Experience in Promoting Health. In: Watson RR and DeMeester F. Wild-Type Food in Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc.; 2008. p. 545-54.
Junyent M, Gilabert R, Zambón D, Pocoví M, Mallén M, Cofán M. Femoral atherosclerosis in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: influence of the genetic defect. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008; 28:580-6.
Young SG, Davies BS, Voss CV, Gin P, Weinstein MM, Tontonoz P. GPIHBP1, an endothelial cell transporter for lipoprotein lipase. J Lipid Res. 2011; 52:1869-84.
Gin P, Beigneux AP, Davies B, Young MF, Ryan RO, Bensadoun A. Normal binding of lipoprotein lipase, chylomicrons, and apo-AV to GPIHBP1 containing a G56R amino acid substitution. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2007; 1771:1464-8.
López-Ruiz A, Jarabo MM, Martínez-Triguero ML, Morales-Suárez-Varela M, Solá E, Bañuls C, et al. Small and dense LDL in familial combined hyperlipidemia and N291S polymorphism of the lipoprotein lipase gene. Lipids Health Dis. 2009; 8:12.
Barter J, Brewer Jr HB, Chapman MJ. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein: a novel target for raising HDL and inhibiting atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003; 23:160-7.
Abifadel M, Rabès JP, Devillers M, Munnich A, Erlich D, Junien C, et al. Mutations and polymorphism in the PCSK9 gene in cholesterol metabolism and disease. Hum Mutat. 2009; 30:520-9.
Guerin M, LeGoff W, Lassel TS. Atherogenic role of elevated CE transfer from HDL to VLDL(1) and dense LDL in type 2 diabetes: impact of the degree of triglyceridemiα. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001; 21:282-8.
Bennet AM, Di Angelantonio E, Ye Z, Wensley F, Dahlin A, Ahlbom A, et al. Association of apolipoprotein E genotypes with lipid levels and coronary risk. JAMA. 2007; 298:1300-11.
El-Gendi SS, Bakeet MY, El-Hamed EA, Ibrahim FK, Ahmed R. The value of lipoprotein (a), homocysteine, and Doppler of carotid and femoral arteries in assessment of atherosclerosis in asymptomatic cardiovascular risk patients. J Cardiol. 2008; 52:202-11.
Guerin M, Egger P, Soudant C. Cholesteryl ester flux from HDL to VLDL-1 is preferentially enhanced in type IIB hyperlipidemia in the postprandial state. J Lipid Res. 2002; 43:1652-60.
Medrano MJ, Boix R, Cerrato E, Ramírez M. Incidencia y prevalencia de cardiopatía isquémica y enfermedad cerebrovascular en España: revisión sistemática de la literatura. Rev Esp Salud Pública. 2006; 80:5-15.
Mills EJ, Rachlis B, Wu P, Devereaux PJ, Arora P, Perri D. Primary prevention of cardiovascular mortality and events with statin treatments: a network meta-analysis involving more than 65,000 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 52:1769-81.
Ascaso JF, Fernández-Cruz A, González Santos P, Hernández Mijares A, Mangas Rojas A, Millán J, et al. Significance of high density lipoprotein-cholesterol in cardiovascular risk prevention: recommendations of the HDL forum. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2004; 4:299-314.
Brunzell MD. Hypertrigyceridemia. N Engl J Med. 2007; 357:1009-17.
Ferns G, Keti V, Griffin B. Investigation and management of hypertriglyceridaemia. Clin Pathol. 2008; 61(11):1174-83.
Degrace P, Moindrot B, Mohamed I. Upregulation of liver VLDL receptor and FAT/CD36 expression in LDLR-/ - apoB100/100 mice fed trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid. J Lipid Res. 2006; 47:2647-55.
Tremblay AJ, Lamarche B, Ruel IL. Increased production of VLDL apoB-100 in subjects with familial hypercholesterolemia carrying the same null LDL receptor gene mutation. J Lipid Res. 2004; 45:866-72.
Kolovou GD, Anagnostopoulu KK, Kostakou PM, Bilianou H, Mikhailidis DP. Primary and secondary hypertriglyceridaemia. Curr Drug Targets. 2009; 10:336-43.
Jones C, Garuti R, Michaely P. Disruption of LDL but not VLDL clearance in autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Invest. 2007; 117:165-74.
De Graaf JVG, Stalenhoef AF. Diagnostic criteria in relation to the pathogenesis of familial combined hiperlipidemias. Semin Vasc Med. 2004; 4:229-40.
Liao WT, Hui Y, Young SG. Blocking microsomal triglyceride transfer protein interferes with apoB secretion without causing retention or stress in the ER. J Lipid Res. 2003; 44:978-85.
Guía de la ESC/EAS sobre el manejo de las dislipemias. Grupo de Trabajo de la Sociedad Europea de Cardiología (ESC) y de la Sociedad Europea de Aterosclerosis (EAS). Rev Esp Cardiol. 2011; 64:1168.e1-e60.
Martin SS, Metkus TS, Horne A, Blaha MJ, Hasan R, Campbell CY, et al. Waiting for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel IV Guidelines, and in the meantime, some challenges and recommendations. Am J Cardiol. 2012; 110(2):307-13.
Anagnostopoulou KK, Kolovou GD, Kostakou PM. Sex-associated effect of CETP and LPL polymorphisms on postprandial lipids in familial hypercholesterolaemia. Lipids Health Dis. 2009; 8:24.
Gaddi A, Cicero AF, Odoo FO, Poli AA, Paoletti R. Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Diseases Study Group. Practical guidelines for familial combined hyperlipidemia diagnosis: an up-date. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2007; 3:877-86.
Carneiro MM, Miname MH, Gagliardi ACl. The removal from plasma of chylomicrons and remnants is reduced in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia subjects with identified LDL receptor mutations: study with artificial emulsions. Atherosclerosis. 2012; 221(1):268-74.
Smelt AH, de Beer F. Apolipoprotein E and familial dysbetalipoproteinemia: clinical, biochemical, and genetic aspects. Semin Vasc Med. 2004; 4:249-57.
Roldán C, Campo C, Segura J, Ruilope LM. Evaluación de riesgo cardiovascular y nuevos factores de riesgo de aterosclerosis. Hipertensión. 2005; 22:195-203.
Barona J, Fernandez ML. Dietary Cholesterol Affects Plasma Lipid Levels, the Intravascular Processing of Lipoproteins and Reverse Cholesterol Transport without Increasing the Risk for Heart Disease. Nutrients. 2012; 4(8):1015-25.
Eren E, Yilmaz N, Aydin O. High Density Lipoprotein and it’s Dysfunction. Open Biochem J. 2012; 6:78-93.
Soran H, Hama S, Yadav R, Durrington PN. HDL functionality. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2012; 23(4):353-66.
Mineo C, Shaul PW. Functions of scavenger receptor class B, type I in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2012; 23(5):487-93.
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Millán J, Alegría E, Álvarez L. Abordaje de la dislipidemia. Sociedad Española de arteriosclerosis. Clínica e investigación en arteriosclerosis. 2011; 23(6):278-288.
Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis. Las enfermedades cardiovasculares y sus factores de riesgo en España: hechos y cifras. Informe SEA 2007. Sociedad Española de Arteriosclerosis; 2007.
Björn L, Leren TP, Ose L, Hamsten A. A functional polymorphism in the promoter region of the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP -493G/T) influences lipoprotein phenotype in familial hypercholesterolemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000; 20:1784-8.
Kolovou G, Daskalova D, Mastorakou I. Regression of Achilles tendon xanthomas evaluated by CT scan after hypolipidemic treatment with simvastatin. Angiology. 2004; 55:335-9.
Hopkins PN. Familial hypercholesterolemia—improving treatment and meeting guidelines. Int J Cardiol. 2003; 89:13-23.
Bansal S, Buring JE, Rifai N, Mora S, Sacks FM, Ridker PM. Fasting compared with non-fasting triglycerides and risk of cardiovascular events in women. JAMA. 2007; 298:309-6.
Sarwar N, Danesh J, Eiriksdottir G, Sigurdsson G, Wareham N, Bingham S. Triglycerides and the risk of coronary heart disease: 10,158 incident cases among 262,525 participants in 29 Western prospective studies. Circulation. 2007; 115:450-8.
Real JT, Martínez-Hervas S, Tormos MC, Domenech E, Pallardo FV, Saez-Tormo Gl. Increased oxidative stress levels and normal antioxidante enzyme activity in circulating mononuclear cells from patinets of familial hypercho-lesterolemia. Metabolism. 2010; 59:293-8.
Jansen AC, van Wissen S, Defesche JC. Phenotypic variability in familial hypercholesterolemia: an update. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2002; 13:165-71.
Aalst-Cohen ES, Jansen AC, de Jongh S. Clinical, diagnostic, and therapeutic aspects of familial hypercholesterolemia. Semin Vasc Med. 2004; 4:31-41.
Kolovou G, Daskalova D, Anagnostopoulou K. Postprandial hypertriglyceridaemia in patients with Tangier disease. J Clin Pathol. 2003; 56:937-941.
Graham I, Atar D, Borch-Johnsen K, Boysen G, Burell G, Cifkova R. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: executive summary. Eur Heart J. 2007; 28:2375-414.
García-García AB, Real JT, Puig O, Cebolla E, Marín-García P, Martínez Ferrandis J. Molecular genetics of familial hypercholesterolemia in Spain: Ten novel LDLR mutations and population analysis. Hum Mutat. 2001; 18:458-9.
Chapman JM, Guerin M, Bruckert E. Role of anomalies of low density lipoproteins (LDL) in atherogenicity. Bull Acad Natl Med. 2001; 185:35-9.
Tan KC, Cooper MB, Ling KL. Fasting and postprandial determinants for the occurrence of small dense LDL species in non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients with and without hypertriglyceridaemia: the involvement of insulin, insulin precursor species and insulin resistance. Atherosclerosis. 2005; 113:273-87.
Leigh SEA, Foster AH, Whittall RA, Hubbart CS, Humprhies SE. Update and Analysis of the University College London Low Density Lipoprotein Receptor Familial Hypercholesterolemia Database. Ann Hum Genet. 2008; 72:485-98.
Morrison A, Hokanson J. The independent relation ship between triglycerides and coronary heart disease. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2009; 5:89-95.
Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Merz CN, Brewer Jr HB. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guide lines. Circulation. 2004; 110:227-39.
Chan DC, Watts GF, Barrett PH, O’Neill FH, Redgrave TG, Thompson GR. Relationships between cholesterol homoeostasis and triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein remnant metabolism in the metabolic syndrome. Clin Sci. 2003; 104:383-8.
Ayyobi AF, Brunzell JD. Lipoprotein distribution in the metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and familial combined hyperlipidemia. Am J Cardiol. 2003; 92:J27-33.
McTaggart F, Jones P. Effects of statins on high - density lipoprotein: a potential contribution to cardiovascular benefit. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2008; 22:321-38.
Rodríguez-Mañas L, El-Assar M, Vallejo S, López-Dóriga P, Solís J, Petidier R. Endothelial dysfunction in aged humans is related with oxidative stress and vascular inflammation. Aging Cell. 2009; 8:226-38.
Schiffrin EL. Oxidative stress, nitric oxide synthase, and superoxide dismutase: a matter of imbalance underlies endothelial dysfunction in the human coronary circulation. Hypertension. 2008; 51:31-2.
Sharrett AR, Heiss G, Chambless LEl. Metabolic and lifestyle determinants of postprandial lipemia differ from those of fasting triglycerides: the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001; 21:275-81.
Herd SL, Kiens B, Boobis LH. Moderate exercise, postprandial lipemia, and skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase activity. Metabolism. 2001; 50:756-62.
Gandotra P, Miller M. The role of triglycerides in cardiovascular risk. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2008; 10:505-11.
Gaddi A, Cicero AF, Odoo FO, Poli AA, Paoletti R. Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Diseases Study Group. Practical guidelines for familial combined hyperlipidemia diagnosis: an up-date. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2007; 3:877-86.
Turley SD. Cholesterol metabolism and therapeutic targets: rationale for targeting multiple metabolic pathways. Clin Cardiol. 2004; 27(Suppl 3):III16-21.
Nasiff-Hadad A, Jiménez-Acosta SM. Modification of a National Diet and Lifestyle Toward Wild-Type Foods. The Cuban Experience in Promoting Health. In: Watson RR and DeMeester F. Wild-Type Food in Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc.; 2008. p. 545-54.
Junyent M, Gilabert R, Zambón D, Pocoví M, Mallén M, Cofán M. Femoral atherosclerosis in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: influence of the genetic defect. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008; 28:580-6.
Young SG, Davies BS, Voss CV, Gin P, Weinstein MM, Tontonoz P. GPIHBP1, an endothelial cell transporter for lipoprotein lipase. J Lipid Res. 2011; 52:1869-84.
Gin P, Beigneux AP, Davies B, Young MF, Ryan RO, Bensadoun A. Normal binding of lipoprotein lipase, chylomicrons, and apo-AV to GPIHBP1 containing a G56R amino acid substitution. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2007; 1771:1464-8.
López-Ruiz A, Jarabo MM, Martínez-Triguero ML, Morales-Suárez-Varela M, Solá E, Bañuls C, et al. Small and dense LDL in familial combined hyperlipidemia and N291S polymorphism of the lipoprotein lipase gene. Lipids Health Dis. 2009; 8:12.
Barter J, Brewer Jr HB, Chapman MJ. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein: a novel target for raising HDL and inhibiting atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003; 23:160-7.
Abifadel M, Rabès JP, Devillers M, Munnich A, Erlich D, Junien C, et al. Mutations and polymorphism in the PCSK9 gene in cholesterol metabolism and disease. Hum Mutat. 2009; 30:520-9.
Guerin M, LeGoff W, Lassel TS. Atherogenic role of elevated CE transfer from HDL to VLDL(1) and dense LDL in type 2 diabetes: impact of the degree of triglyceridemiα. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001; 21:282-8.
Bennet AM, Di Angelantonio E, Ye Z, Wensley F, Dahlin A, Ahlbom A, et al. Association of apolipoprotein E genotypes with lipid levels and coronary risk. JAMA. 2007; 298:1300-11.
El-Gendi SS, Bakeet MY, El-Hamed EA, Ibrahim FK, Ahmed R. The value of lipoprotein (a), homocysteine, and Doppler of carotid and femoral arteries in assessment of atherosclerosis in asymptomatic cardiovascular risk patients. J Cardiol. 2008; 52:202-11.
Guerin M, Egger P, Soudant C. Cholesteryl ester flux from HDL to VLDL-1 is preferentially enhanced in type IIB hyperlipidemia in the postprandial state. J Lipid Res. 2002; 43:1652-60.
Medrano MJ, Boix R, Cerrato E, Ramírez M. Incidencia y prevalencia de cardiopatía isquémica y enfermedad cerebrovascular en España: revisión sistemática de la literatura. Rev Esp Salud Pública. 2006; 80:5-15.
Mills EJ, Rachlis B, Wu P, Devereaux PJ, Arora P, Perri D. Primary prevention of cardiovascular mortality and events with statin treatments: a network meta-analysis involving more than 65,000 patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 52:1769-81.
Ascaso JF, Fernández-Cruz A, González Santos P, Hernández Mijares A, Mangas Rojas A, Millán J, et al. Significance of high density lipoprotein-cholesterol in cardiovascular risk prevention: recommendations of the HDL forum. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs. 2004; 4:299-314.
Brunzell MD. Hypertrigyceridemia. N Engl J Med. 2007; 357:1009-17.
Ferns G, Keti V, Griffin B. Investigation and management of hypertriglyceridaemia. Clin Pathol. 2008; 61(11):1174-83.
Degrace P, Moindrot B, Mohamed I. Upregulation of liver VLDL receptor and FAT/CD36 expression in LDLR-/ - apoB100/100 mice fed trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid. J Lipid Res. 2006; 47:2647-55.
Tremblay AJ, Lamarche B, Ruel IL. Increased production of VLDL apoB-100 in subjects with familial hypercholesterolemia carrying the same null LDL receptor gene mutation. J Lipid Res. 2004; 45:866-72.
Kolovou GD, Anagnostopoulu KK, Kostakou PM, Bilianou H, Mikhailidis DP. Primary and secondary hypertriglyceridaemia. Curr Drug Targets. 2009; 10:336-43.
Jones C, Garuti R, Michaely P. Disruption of LDL but not VLDL clearance in autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Invest. 2007; 117:165-74.
De Graaf JVG, Stalenhoef AF. Diagnostic criteria in relation to the pathogenesis of familial combined hiperlipidemias. Semin Vasc Med. 2004; 4:229-40.
Liao WT, Hui Y, Young SG. Blocking microsomal triglyceride transfer protein interferes with apoB secretion without causing retention or stress in the ER. J Lipid Res. 2003; 44:978-85.
Guía de la ESC/EAS sobre el manejo de las dislipemias. Grupo de Trabajo de la Sociedad Europea de Cardiología (ESC) y de la Sociedad Europea de Aterosclerosis (EAS). Rev Esp Cardiol. 2011; 64:1168.e1-e60.
Martin SS, Metkus TS, Horne A, Blaha MJ, Hasan R, Campbell CY, et al. Waiting for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel IV Guidelines, and in the meantime, some challenges and recommendations. Am J Cardiol. 2012; 110(2):307-13.
Anagnostopoulou KK, Kolovou GD, Kostakou PM. Sex-associated effect of CETP and LPL polymorphisms on postprandial lipids in familial hypercholesterolaemia. Lipids Health Dis. 2009; 8:24.
Gaddi A, Cicero AF, Odoo FO, Poli AA, Paoletti R. Atherosclerosis and Metabolic Diseases Study Group. Practical guidelines for familial combined hyperlipidemia diagnosis: an up-date. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2007; 3:877-86.
Carneiro MM, Miname MH, Gagliardi ACl. The removal from plasma of chylomicrons and remnants is reduced in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia subjects with identified LDL receptor mutations: study with artificial emulsions. Atherosclerosis. 2012; 221(1):268-74.
Smelt AH, de Beer F. Apolipoprotein E and familial dysbetalipoproteinemia: clinical, biochemical, and genetic aspects. Semin Vasc Med. 2004; 4:249-57.
Roldán C, Campo C, Segura J, Ruilope LM. Evaluación de riesgo cardiovascular y nuevos factores de riesgo de aterosclerosis. Hipertensión. 2005; 22:195-203.
Barona J, Fernandez ML. Dietary Cholesterol Affects Plasma Lipid Levels, the Intravascular Processing of Lipoproteins and Reverse Cholesterol Transport without Increasing the Risk for Heart Disease. Nutrients. 2012; 4(8):1015-25.
Eren E, Yilmaz N, Aydin O. High Density Lipoprotein and it’s Dysfunction. Open Biochem J. 2012; 6:78-93.
Soran H, Hama S, Yadav R, Durrington PN. HDL functionality. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2012; 23(4):353-66.
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