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Fecha Publicación: 2011-12-23
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Pérez, J. E., Villada Gómez, J. S., Naranjo Pérez, O. D., & Castaño, S. V. (2011). Formas alternas de transmisión de Toxoplasma gondii. Biosalud, 10(2), 123–137. Recuperado a partir de https://revistasojs.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/biosalud/article/view/4746
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El Toxoplasma gondii, es un protozoario descubierto hace poco más de un siglo, es un parásito de gran importancia epidemiológica, que puede ocasionar en mujeres embarazadas desde complicaciones neurológicas en el producto, hasta muerte fetal, incluso abortos y encefalitis en pacientes con SIDA, convirtiéndose en Colombia en un grave problema de salud pública. En la revisión de la evidencia disponible, se ha llegado a concluir que las formas en que el parásito llega a infectar al ser humano son muy variadas, incluyendo las formas conocidas desde tiempo atrás como: alimentos contaminados, contacto con heces felinas; además de otras formas no tan conocidas como son: la vía transfusional, por trasplantes de órganos, la vía acuática, la mecánica, la inhalación de ooquistes y la vía sexual; involucrando en el ciclo de vida del parásito, a especies animales diferentes a los felinos, tales como perros e insectos. Así mismo, se resalta la importancia de factores antrópicos y medio ambientales, como moduladores de las dinámicas de transmisión y del ciclo de vida del parasito. Esta revisión, proporciona bases sólidas para alertar al sistema de salud pública colombiano, acerca de la necesidad de adoptar medidas higiénicas y sanitarias para evitar la difusión de esta patología entre poblaciones de alto riesgo.
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Dubey JP. The history of Toxoplasma gondii - the first 100 years. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2008; 55:467-475.
Faust EC, Russell PF, Jung RC. Otros sporozoa: toxoplasma, sarcocystis, pneumocystis. En: Faust EC, Russell PF, Jung RC. Parasitología clínica de Craig y Faust. 1 ed. México: Salvat Editores; 1979. p. 229-235.
Gómez-Marin, JE. Protozoología médica: protozoos parásitos en el contexto latinoamericano. 1 ed. Bogotá: Editorial Manual Moderno; 2010. p. 65-87.
Sundar P, Mahadevan A, Jayshree RS, Subbakrishna DK, Shankar SK. Toxoplasma seroprevalence in healthy voluntary blood donors from urban Karnataka. Indian J Med Res 2007; 126:50-55.
Cook AJ, Gilbert RE, Buffolano W, Zufferey J, Petersen E, Jenum PA, et al. Sources of Toxoplasma infection in pregnant women: European multicentre case-control study. BMJ 2000; 321:142-147.
Gilot-Fromont E, Riche B, Rabilloud M. Toxoplasma seroprevalence in a rural population in France: detection of a household effect. BMC Infect Dis 2009; 9:76.
Ertug S, Okyay P, Turkmen M, Yuksel H. Seroprevalence and risk factors for toxoplasma infection among pregnant women in Aydin province, Turkey. BMC Public Health 2005; 5:66.
Gómez JE. Toxoplasmosis: un problema de Salud Pública en Colombia. Rev. Salud pública 2002; 4:7-10.
López CA, Díaz J, Gómez JE. Factores de riesgo en mujeres embarazadas, infectadas por Toxoplasma gondii en Armenia Colombia. Rev. Salud pública 2005; 7(2):180-190.
Gómez-Marín JE. Toxoplasma. En: Díaz FJ, Estrada S, Franco L, Jaramillo JM, Maestre A, Ospina S et al. Microbiología de las infecciones humanas. Medellín: Corporación para Investigaciones Biológicas; 2007. p. 384-399.
Dubey JP, Jones JL. Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans and animals in the United States. Int J Parasitol 2008; 38:1257-1278.
Azevedo KM, Setúbal S, Lopes VG, Bastos LA, De Oliveira SA. Congenital toxoplasmosis transmitted by human immunodeficiency-virus infected women. Braz J Infect Dis 2010; 14(2):186-189.
Dubey JP. Toxoplasmosis - a waterborne zoonosis. Vet Parasitol 2004; 126:57-72.
Buxton D. Ovine toxoplasmosis: a review. J R Soc Med 1990; 83:509-511.
Dubey JP, Su C, Cortés JA, Sundar N, Gomez JE, Polo LJ et al. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cats from Colombia, South America and genetic characterization of T. gondii isolates. Vet Parasitol 2006; 141:42-47.
Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Speer CA. Structures of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, bradyzoites and sporozoites and biology and development of tissue cysts. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998; 11:267-299.
Dubey JP. Comparative infectivity of oocysts and bradyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii for intermediate (mice) and definitive (cats) hosts. Vet Parasitol 2006; 140:69-75.
Lélu M, Langlais M, Poulle M-L, Gilot-Fromont E. Transmission dynamics of Toxoplasma gondii along an urban-rural gradient. Theor Popul Biol 2010; 78:139-147.
Dubey JP. Unexpected oocyst shedding by cats fed Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites: in vivo stage conversion and strain variation. Vet Parasitol 2005; 133:289-298.
Dubey JP. Re-examination of resistance of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites and bradyzoites to pepsin and trypsin digestion. Parasitology 1998; 116:43-50.
Tenter A M. Toxoplasma gondii in animals used for human consumption. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2009; 104:364-369.
De Moura L, Bahía-Oliveira LM, Wada MY, Jones JL, Tuboi SH, Carmo EH, et al. Waterborne Toxoplasmosis, Brazil, from Field to Gene. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12(2):326-329.
Aramini JJ, Stephen C, Dubey JP, Engelstoft C, Schwantje H, Ribble CS. Potential contamination of drinking water with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Epidemiol Infec 1999; 122:305-315.
Bowie WR, King AS, Werker DH, Isaac-Renton JL, Bell A, Eng SB, et al. Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking water. The Lancet 1997; 350:173-177.
Sroka J, Wójcik-Fatla A, Dutkiewicz J. Ocurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in water from wells located on farms. Ann Agric Environ Med 2006; 13:169-175.
Kuticic V, Wikerhauser T. Studies of the effect of various treatments on the viability of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts and oocysts. Curr Top Microbiol Inmunol 1996; 219:261-265.
Shapiro K, Mazet J, Schriewer A, Wuertz S, Fritz H, Miller WA, et al. Detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts and surrogate microspheres in water using ultrafiltration and capsule filtration. Water Res 2010; 44:893-903.
Wainwright KE, Miller MA, Barr BC, Gardner IA, Melli AC, Essert T, et al. Chemical inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii in water. J. Parasitol 2007; 93(4):925-931.
Dumétre A, Le Bras C, Baffet M, Meneceur P, Dubey JP, Derouin F, et al. Effects of ozone and ultraviolet radiation treatments on the infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Vet Parasitol 2008; 153:209-213.
Jones JL, Dargelas V, Roberts J, Press C, Remington JS, Montoya JG. Risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49:878-884.
Elhence P, Agarwal P, Prasad KN, Chaudhary RK. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in North Indian blood donors: implications for transfusion transmissible toxoplasmosis. Transfus Apher Sci 2010; 43:37-40.
Wreghitt TG, Hakim M, Gray JJ, Balfour AH, Stovin PGI, Stewart S, et al. Toxoplasmosis in heart and heart and lung transplant recipients. J Clin Pathol 1989; 42:194-199.
Siegel SE, Lunde MN, Gelderman AH, Halterman RH, Brown JA, Levine AS, et al. Transmission of toxoplasmosis by leukocyte transfusion. Blood 1971; 37:388-394.
Garcia de la Fuente I, Ansari M, Rougemont AL, Passweg JR, Gumy-Pause F, Ozsahin H, et al. Acute disseminated fatal toxoplasmosis after haploidentical stem cell transplantation despite atovaquone prophylaxis in a young man. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010; 29:1059-1060.
Wolf A, Cowen D, Paige B. Human toxoplasmosis: ocurrence in infants as an encephalomyelitis verification by transmission to animals. Science 1939; 89:226-227.
Gómez JE, Ruíz B, Silva P, Beltrán S, Cortés J, Montoya J, et al. Guía de práctica clínica para toxoplasmosis durante el embarazo y toxoplasmosis congénita en Colombia. Infectio 2007; 11(3): 129-141.
Villena I, Ancelle T, Delmas C, García P, Brézin AP, Thulliez P, et al. Congenital toxoplasmosis in France in 2007: first results from a national surveillance system. Euro Surveill 2010; 15(25): 1-6
Ocampo LM, Duarte I. Modelo para la dinámica de transmisión de la toxoplasmosis congénita. Rev. Salud pública 2010; 12(2):317-326.
Roberts CW, Walker W, Alexander J.Sex-Associated Hormones and Inmunity to Protozoan Parasites. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14:476-488.
De Moraes EP, Batista AM, Faria EB, Freire BL, Freitas AC, Ramos MA, et al. Experimental infection by Toxoplasma gondii using contaminated semen containing different doses of tachyzoites in sheep. Vet Parasitol 2010; 170:318-322.
Arantes TP, Zanetti WD, Machado R, Pinto JS, Pinto VMR, Sakamoto CA, et al. Toxoplasma gondii: Evidence for the transmission by semen in dogs. Exp Parasitol 2009; 123:190-194.
Pellati D, Mylonakis I, Bertoloni G, Fiore C, Andrisani A, Ambrosini G, et al. Genital tract infections and infertility. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2008; 140: 3-11.
Terpsidis KI, Papazahariadou MG, Taitzoglou IA, Papaioannou NG, Georgiadis MP, Theodoridis IT. Toxoplasma gondii: Reproductive parameters in experimentally infected male rats. Exp Parasitol 2009; 121:238-241.
Martinez F, Regadera J, Mayer R, Sanchez S, Nistal M. Protozoan infections in the male genital tract. J Urol 1996; 156:340-349.
Graczyk TK, Knight R, Gilman RH, Cranfield MR. The role of non-biting flies in the epidemiology of human infectious diseases. Microbes infect 2001; 3:231-235.
Wallace GD. Experimental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii by filth-flies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1971; 20:411-413.
Lindsay DS, Dubey JP, Butler JM, Blagburn BL. Mechanical transmission of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts by dogs. Vet Parasitol 1997; 73:27-33.
Graczyk TK, Knight R, Tamang L. Mechanical Transmission of Human Protozoan Parasites by Insects. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18:128-132.
Wallace GD. Experimental Transmission of Toxoplasma gondii by Cockroaches. J Infect Dis 1972; 126:545-547.
Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-Related Illness and Death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5(5):607-625.
Lora F, Aricapa HJ, Pérez JE, Arias LE, Idárraga SE, Mier D et al. Detección de Toxoplasma gondii en carnes de consumo humano por la técnica de reacción en cadena de la polimerasa en tres ciudades del eje cafetero. Infectio 2007; 11:117-123.
Ortega A, Acosta KY, Guzmán E, Uitzil B, Rodríguez JC, Jimenez M. Infection dynamic of Toxoplasma gondii in Two fattening pig farms exposed to high and low cat density in an endemic región. Vet Parasitol 2011; 175:367-371.
Mateus NE, Hannon B, Weigel RM. A computer simulation of the prevention of the transmission of Toxoplasma gondii on swine farms using a feline T. gondii vaccine. Prev Vet Med 2002; 55:17-36.
Gauss CBL, Dubey JP, Vidal D, Ruiz F, Vicente J, Marco I, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild pigs (Sus scrofa) from Spain. Vet Parasitol 2005; 131:151-156.
Fornazari F, Langoni H, Da Silva RC, Guazzelli A, Garcia M, Chiacchio SB. Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild boars (Sus scrofa) bred in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2009; 164:333-334.
Ross RD, Stec LA, Werner JC, Blumenkranz MS, Glazer L, Williams GA. Presumed acquired ocular toxoplasmosis in deer hunters. Retina 2001; 21:226-229.
Sacks JJ, Delgado DG, Lobel HO, Parker RL. Toxoplasmosis infection associated with eating undercooked venison. Am J Epidemiol 1983; 118(6):832-838.
Da Silva RC, Zetun CB, Gimenes Sde M, Bagagli E, Rosa PS, Langoni H. Toxoplasma gondii and Leptospira spp. Infection in free-ranging armadillos. Vet Parasitol 2008; 157:291-293.
Yan C, Yue CL, Yuan ZG, He Y, Yin CC, Lin RQ, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic ducks, free-range and caged chickens in southern China. Vet Parasitol 2009; 165:337-340.
Dubey JP, Patitucci AN, Su C, Sundar N, Kwok OC, Shen SK. Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii isolates in free-range chickens from Chile, South America. Vet Parasitol 2006; 140:76-82.
Waap H, Vilares A, Rebelo E, Gomes S, Ángelo H. Epidemiological and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in urban pigeons from the area of Lisbon (Portugal). Vet Parasitol 2008; 157:306-309.
Martínez C, Bernabé A, Ortiz JM, Alonso FD. Experimental toxoplasmosis in red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) fed Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Vet Parasitol 2005; 130:55-60.
Skinner LJ, Timperley AC, Wightman D, Chatterton JM, Ho-Yen DO. Simultaneous Diagnosis of Toxoplasmosis in Goats and Goatowner’s Family. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 22:359-361.
Sacks JJ, Roberto RR, Brooks NF. Toxoplasmosis infection associated with Raw Goat’s Milk. JAMA 1982; 248:1728-1732.
Meerburg BG, Kijlstra A. Changing climate-changing pathogens: Toxoplasma gondii in North Western Europe. Parasitol Res 2009; 105:17-24.
Afonso E, Thulliez P, Gilot-Fromont E. Local meteorological conditions, dynamics of seroconversión to Toxoplasma gondii in cats (Felis catus) and oocyst burden in a rural environment. Epidemiol Infect 2010; 138:1105-1113.
Dos Santos TR, Nunes CM, Luvizotto MC, De Moura AB, Lopes WD, Da Costa AJ, et al. Detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in environmental samples from public schools. Vet Parasitol 2010; 171:53-57.
Dubey JP. Survival of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts in 0.85-6 % NaCl solutions at 4-20ºC. J Parasitol 1997; 83:946-949.
Studenicovà C, Bencaiovà G, Holková R. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in a healthy population from Slovakia. Eur J Intern Med 2006; 17(7):470-473.
Martín I, García SM. Prevalencia de anticuerpos IgG contra Toxoplasma gondii en donantes de sangre cubanos. Rev Biomed 2003; 14:247-251.
Faust EC, Russell PF, Jung RC. Otros sporozoa: toxoplasma, sarcocystis, pneumocystis. En: Faust EC, Russell PF, Jung RC. Parasitología clínica de Craig y Faust. 1 ed. México: Salvat Editores; 1979. p. 229-235.
Gómez-Marin, JE. Protozoología médica: protozoos parásitos en el contexto latinoamericano. 1 ed. Bogotá: Editorial Manual Moderno; 2010. p. 65-87.
Sundar P, Mahadevan A, Jayshree RS, Subbakrishna DK, Shankar SK. Toxoplasma seroprevalence in healthy voluntary blood donors from urban Karnataka. Indian J Med Res 2007; 126:50-55.
Cook AJ, Gilbert RE, Buffolano W, Zufferey J, Petersen E, Jenum PA, et al. Sources of Toxoplasma infection in pregnant women: European multicentre case-control study. BMJ 2000; 321:142-147.
Gilot-Fromont E, Riche B, Rabilloud M. Toxoplasma seroprevalence in a rural population in France: detection of a household effect. BMC Infect Dis 2009; 9:76.
Ertug S, Okyay P, Turkmen M, Yuksel H. Seroprevalence and risk factors for toxoplasma infection among pregnant women in Aydin province, Turkey. BMC Public Health 2005; 5:66.
Gómez JE. Toxoplasmosis: un problema de Salud Pública en Colombia. Rev. Salud pública 2002; 4:7-10.
López CA, Díaz J, Gómez JE. Factores de riesgo en mujeres embarazadas, infectadas por Toxoplasma gondii en Armenia Colombia. Rev. Salud pública 2005; 7(2):180-190.
Gómez-Marín JE. Toxoplasma. En: Díaz FJ, Estrada S, Franco L, Jaramillo JM, Maestre A, Ospina S et al. Microbiología de las infecciones humanas. Medellín: Corporación para Investigaciones Biológicas; 2007. p. 384-399.
Dubey JP, Jones JL. Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans and animals in the United States. Int J Parasitol 2008; 38:1257-1278.
Azevedo KM, Setúbal S, Lopes VG, Bastos LA, De Oliveira SA. Congenital toxoplasmosis transmitted by human immunodeficiency-virus infected women. Braz J Infect Dis 2010; 14(2):186-189.
Dubey JP. Toxoplasmosis - a waterborne zoonosis. Vet Parasitol 2004; 126:57-72.
Buxton D. Ovine toxoplasmosis: a review. J R Soc Med 1990; 83:509-511.
Dubey JP, Su C, Cortés JA, Sundar N, Gomez JE, Polo LJ et al. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in cats from Colombia, South America and genetic characterization of T. gondii isolates. Vet Parasitol 2006; 141:42-47.
Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Speer CA. Structures of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, bradyzoites and sporozoites and biology and development of tissue cysts. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998; 11:267-299.
Dubey JP. Comparative infectivity of oocysts and bradyzoites of Toxoplasma gondii for intermediate (mice) and definitive (cats) hosts. Vet Parasitol 2006; 140:69-75.
Lélu M, Langlais M, Poulle M-L, Gilot-Fromont E. Transmission dynamics of Toxoplasma gondii along an urban-rural gradient. Theor Popul Biol 2010; 78:139-147.
Dubey JP. Unexpected oocyst shedding by cats fed Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites: in vivo stage conversion and strain variation. Vet Parasitol 2005; 133:289-298.
Dubey JP. Re-examination of resistance of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites and bradyzoites to pepsin and trypsin digestion. Parasitology 1998; 116:43-50.
Tenter A M. Toxoplasma gondii in animals used for human consumption. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2009; 104:364-369.
De Moura L, Bahía-Oliveira LM, Wada MY, Jones JL, Tuboi SH, Carmo EH, et al. Waterborne Toxoplasmosis, Brazil, from Field to Gene. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12(2):326-329.
Aramini JJ, Stephen C, Dubey JP, Engelstoft C, Schwantje H, Ribble CS. Potential contamination of drinking water with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Epidemiol Infec 1999; 122:305-315.
Bowie WR, King AS, Werker DH, Isaac-Renton JL, Bell A, Eng SB, et al. Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking water. The Lancet 1997; 350:173-177.
Sroka J, Wójcik-Fatla A, Dutkiewicz J. Ocurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in water from wells located on farms. Ann Agric Environ Med 2006; 13:169-175.
Kuticic V, Wikerhauser T. Studies of the effect of various treatments on the viability of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts and oocysts. Curr Top Microbiol Inmunol 1996; 219:261-265.
Shapiro K, Mazet J, Schriewer A, Wuertz S, Fritz H, Miller WA, et al. Detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts and surrogate microspheres in water using ultrafiltration and capsule filtration. Water Res 2010; 44:893-903.
Wainwright KE, Miller MA, Barr BC, Gardner IA, Melli AC, Essert T, et al. Chemical inactivation of Toxoplasma gondii in water. J. Parasitol 2007; 93(4):925-931.
Dumétre A, Le Bras C, Baffet M, Meneceur P, Dubey JP, Derouin F, et al. Effects of ozone and ultraviolet radiation treatments on the infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Vet Parasitol 2008; 153:209-213.
Jones JL, Dargelas V, Roberts J, Press C, Remington JS, Montoya JG. Risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49:878-884.
Elhence P, Agarwal P, Prasad KN, Chaudhary RK. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in North Indian blood donors: implications for transfusion transmissible toxoplasmosis. Transfus Apher Sci 2010; 43:37-40.
Wreghitt TG, Hakim M, Gray JJ, Balfour AH, Stovin PGI, Stewart S, et al. Toxoplasmosis in heart and heart and lung transplant recipients. J Clin Pathol 1989; 42:194-199.
Siegel SE, Lunde MN, Gelderman AH, Halterman RH, Brown JA, Levine AS, et al. Transmission of toxoplasmosis by leukocyte transfusion. Blood 1971; 37:388-394.
Garcia de la Fuente I, Ansari M, Rougemont AL, Passweg JR, Gumy-Pause F, Ozsahin H, et al. Acute disseminated fatal toxoplasmosis after haploidentical stem cell transplantation despite atovaquone prophylaxis in a young man. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010; 29:1059-1060.
Wolf A, Cowen D, Paige B. Human toxoplasmosis: ocurrence in infants as an encephalomyelitis verification by transmission to animals. Science 1939; 89:226-227.
Gómez JE, Ruíz B, Silva P, Beltrán S, Cortés J, Montoya J, et al. Guía de práctica clínica para toxoplasmosis durante el embarazo y toxoplasmosis congénita en Colombia. Infectio 2007; 11(3): 129-141.
Villena I, Ancelle T, Delmas C, García P, Brézin AP, Thulliez P, et al. Congenital toxoplasmosis in France in 2007: first results from a national surveillance system. Euro Surveill 2010; 15(25): 1-6
Ocampo LM, Duarte I. Modelo para la dinámica de transmisión de la toxoplasmosis congénita. Rev. Salud pública 2010; 12(2):317-326.
Roberts CW, Walker W, Alexander J.Sex-Associated Hormones and Inmunity to Protozoan Parasites. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14:476-488.
De Moraes EP, Batista AM, Faria EB, Freire BL, Freitas AC, Ramos MA, et al. Experimental infection by Toxoplasma gondii using contaminated semen containing different doses of tachyzoites in sheep. Vet Parasitol 2010; 170:318-322.
Arantes TP, Zanetti WD, Machado R, Pinto JS, Pinto VMR, Sakamoto CA, et al. Toxoplasma gondii: Evidence for the transmission by semen in dogs. Exp Parasitol 2009; 123:190-194.
Pellati D, Mylonakis I, Bertoloni G, Fiore C, Andrisani A, Ambrosini G, et al. Genital tract infections and infertility. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2008; 140: 3-11.
Terpsidis KI, Papazahariadou MG, Taitzoglou IA, Papaioannou NG, Georgiadis MP, Theodoridis IT. Toxoplasma gondii: Reproductive parameters in experimentally infected male rats. Exp Parasitol 2009; 121:238-241.
Martinez F, Regadera J, Mayer R, Sanchez S, Nistal M. Protozoan infections in the male genital tract. J Urol 1996; 156:340-349.
Graczyk TK, Knight R, Gilman RH, Cranfield MR. The role of non-biting flies in the epidemiology of human infectious diseases. Microbes infect 2001; 3:231-235.
Wallace GD. Experimental transmission of Toxoplasma gondii by filth-flies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1971; 20:411-413.
Lindsay DS, Dubey JP, Butler JM, Blagburn BL. Mechanical transmission of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts by dogs. Vet Parasitol 1997; 73:27-33.
Graczyk TK, Knight R, Tamang L. Mechanical Transmission of Human Protozoan Parasites by Insects. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18:128-132.
Wallace GD. Experimental Transmission of Toxoplasma gondii by Cockroaches. J Infect Dis 1972; 126:545-547.
Mead PS, Slutsker L, Dietz V, McCaig LF, Bresee JS, Shapiro C, et al. Food-Related Illness and Death in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5(5):607-625.
Lora F, Aricapa HJ, Pérez JE, Arias LE, Idárraga SE, Mier D et al. Detección de Toxoplasma gondii en carnes de consumo humano por la técnica de reacción en cadena de la polimerasa en tres ciudades del eje cafetero. Infectio 2007; 11:117-123.
Ortega A, Acosta KY, Guzmán E, Uitzil B, Rodríguez JC, Jimenez M. Infection dynamic of Toxoplasma gondii in Two fattening pig farms exposed to high and low cat density in an endemic región. Vet Parasitol 2011; 175:367-371.
Mateus NE, Hannon B, Weigel RM. A computer simulation of the prevention of the transmission of Toxoplasma gondii on swine farms using a feline T. gondii vaccine. Prev Vet Med 2002; 55:17-36.
Gauss CBL, Dubey JP, Vidal D, Ruiz F, Vicente J, Marco I, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild pigs (Sus scrofa) from Spain. Vet Parasitol 2005; 131:151-156.
Fornazari F, Langoni H, Da Silva RC, Guazzelli A, Garcia M, Chiacchio SB. Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild boars (Sus scrofa) bred in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2009; 164:333-334.
Ross RD, Stec LA, Werner JC, Blumenkranz MS, Glazer L, Williams GA. Presumed acquired ocular toxoplasmosis in deer hunters. Retina 2001; 21:226-229.
Sacks JJ, Delgado DG, Lobel HO, Parker RL. Toxoplasmosis infection associated with eating undercooked venison. Am J Epidemiol 1983; 118(6):832-838.
Da Silva RC, Zetun CB, Gimenes Sde M, Bagagli E, Rosa PS, Langoni H. Toxoplasma gondii and Leptospira spp. Infection in free-ranging armadillos. Vet Parasitol 2008; 157:291-293.
Yan C, Yue CL, Yuan ZG, He Y, Yin CC, Lin RQ, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic ducks, free-range and caged chickens in southern China. Vet Parasitol 2009; 165:337-340.
Dubey JP, Patitucci AN, Su C, Sundar N, Kwok OC, Shen SK. Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii isolates in free-range chickens from Chile, South America. Vet Parasitol 2006; 140:76-82.
Waap H, Vilares A, Rebelo E, Gomes S, Ángelo H. Epidemiological and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in urban pigeons from the area of Lisbon (Portugal). Vet Parasitol 2008; 157:306-309.
Martínez C, Bernabé A, Ortiz JM, Alonso FD. Experimental toxoplasmosis in red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) fed Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Vet Parasitol 2005; 130:55-60.
Skinner LJ, Timperley AC, Wightman D, Chatterton JM, Ho-Yen DO. Simultaneous Diagnosis of Toxoplasmosis in Goats and Goatowner’s Family. Scand J Infect Dis 1990; 22:359-361.
Sacks JJ, Roberto RR, Brooks NF. Toxoplasmosis infection associated with Raw Goat’s Milk. JAMA 1982; 248:1728-1732.
Meerburg BG, Kijlstra A. Changing climate-changing pathogens: Toxoplasma gondii in North Western Europe. Parasitol Res 2009; 105:17-24.
Afonso E, Thulliez P, Gilot-Fromont E. Local meteorological conditions, dynamics of seroconversión to Toxoplasma gondii in cats (Felis catus) and oocyst burden in a rural environment. Epidemiol Infect 2010; 138:1105-1113.
Dos Santos TR, Nunes CM, Luvizotto MC, De Moura AB, Lopes WD, Da Costa AJ, et al. Detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in environmental samples from public schools. Vet Parasitol 2010; 171:53-57.
Dubey JP. Survival of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts in 0.85-6 % NaCl solutions at 4-20ºC. J Parasitol 1997; 83:946-949.
Studenicovà C, Bencaiovà G, Holková R. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in a healthy population from Slovakia. Eur J Intern Med 2006; 17(7):470-473.
Martín I, García SM. Prevalencia de anticuerpos IgG contra Toxoplasma gondii en donantes de sangre cubanos. Rev Biomed 2003; 14:247-251.
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