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Polit, M., Friso, F., & Mabit, J. (2019). Plant based assisted therapy for the treatment of substance use disorders part 2 : beyond blurred boundaries. Cultura Y Droga, 24(28), 19–42. https://doi.org/10.17151/culdr.2019.24.28.2
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Abstract
Objective. This article aims to offer a vision of the centers at a global level that use derivatives of plants or animals for the treatment of substance use disorders, and to offer a reflection on the concept of drugs as medicinal or toxicant agents depending on the context of use, culture and policy. Methodology. Some practices coming from Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas were considered, carrying out a research based on scientific literature, exchange of information with treatment centers, internet search and the personal experience of the authors. Results and Discussion. Different cases of the use of natural medicines are described including psychoactive derivatives of Tabernanthe iboga and Bufo alvarius. Conclusions. The blurred boundaries between considering drug consumption as a crime or as a health issue could be overcome by being inspired by the ancient wisdom of traditional medicines.
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References
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Benfer, I., Zahnow, R., Barratt, M., Maier, L., Winstock, A. & Ferris, J. (2018). The impact of drug policy liberalisation on willingness to seek help for problem drug use: A comparison of 20 countries. International Journal of Drug Policy, 56, 162–75.
Bradford, A. C., Bradford, D., Abraham, A. J. & Bagwell Adams, G. (2018). Association Between US State Medical Cannabis Laws and Opioid Prescribing in the Medicare Part D Population. JAMA Intern Med, 178 (5), 667-72.
Bogenschutz, M. P. & Ross, S. (2018). Therapeutic Applications of Classic Hallucinogens. Current topics in behavioral neurosciences, 36, 361-391.
Bouso Saiz, J, C. (2012). Personalidad, Psicopatología y rendimiento neuropsicológico de los consumidores rituales de ayahuasca (tesis doctoral). Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, España.
Bridgeman, M. B. & Abazia, D. T. (2017). Medicinal Cannabis: History, Pharmacology, and Implications for the Acute Care Setting. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 42 (3), 180-8.
Brave, P. S., Bruins, E. & Bronkhorst, M. W. (2014). Phyllomedusa bicolor skin secretion and the Kambô ritual. The journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases, 20, (40).
Dhawan, K. (2003). Drug/substance reversal effects of a novel tri-substituted benzoflavone moiety (BZF) isolated from Passiflora incarnata Linn.-a brief perspective. Addict Biol, 8, 379-86.
Dhawan, K., Kumar, S. & Sharma, A. (2002). Suppression of alcohol-cessationoriented hyper-anxiety by the benzoflavone moiety of Passiflora incarnata Linneaus in mice. J Ethnopharmacol, 81, 239-44.
Fernandez, J. W. (1982). Bwiti: An Ethnography of The Religious Imagination in Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ferreira, S. (2017). Portugal’s radical drugs policy is working. Why hasn’t the world copied it?. Recovered from https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/dec/05/portugals-radical-drugs-policy-is-working-why-hasnt-the-world-copied-it.
Frecska, E., Bokor, P. & Winkelman, M. (2016). The Therapeutic Potentials of Ayahuasca: Possible Effects against Various Diseases of Civilization. Front. Pharmacol, 7 (35).
Garland, E. L. & Howard, M. O. (2018). Mindfulness-based treatment of addiction: current state of the field and envisioning the next wave of research. Addict Sci Clin Pract, 13 (1), 14.
Gorman, P. (1993). Making Magic. Recovered from http://www.artoftransformations.com/files/Making-Magic-by-Peter-Gorman.pdf.
Grant, S., Kandrack, R., Motala, A., Shanman, R., Booth, M., Miles, J., Sorbero,
M…,. & Hempel, S. (2016). Acupuncture for substance use disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend, 163,1-15.
Habib, G. & Artul, S. (2018). Medical Cannabis for the Treatment of Fibromyalgia. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, 24 (5), 255–258.
Heggenhougen, H. K. (1984). Traditional medicine and the treatment of drug addicts: three examples from Southeast Asia. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 16 (1), 3-7.
Hinojosa, O. R. (2017). OTAC: Toad Medicine and its Role in Modern World. Paper presented at the International Transpersonal Conference, Prague.
Hohmann, L., Bradt, J., Stegemann, T. & Koelsch, S. (2017). Effects of music therapy and music-based interventions in the treatment of substance use disorders: A systematic review. PLoS One, 12 (11).
ICEERS. (2017). Risks associated with combining Bufo Alvarius with ayahuasca. International Center for Ethnobotanical Education Research and Service. Recovered from http://news.iceers.org/2017/05/alert-bufo-alvarius-andayahuasca/.
Labate, B. & Cavnar, C. (2018). The Expanding World Ayahuasca Diaspora: Appropriation, Integration and Legislation. London: Routledge.
Labate, B. & Coffaci de Lima, E. (2014). Medical Drug or Shamanic Power Plant: The Uses of Kambô in Brazil. Ponto Urbe [Online], 15. DOI: 10.4000/pontourbe.2384.
Levinson, J. (2018). Opioid addicts are turning to a clinic in Mexico to break their addiction, but there’s a catch. GlobalPost. Recovered from https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-03-06/opioid-addicts-are-turning-clinic-mexico-break-theiraddiction-theres-catch.
Llagostera, A., Torres, M. C. & Costa, M. A. (1988). El complejo psicotrópico en Scolor-3 (San Pedro de Atacama). Estudios Atacámenos, 9, 61-98.
Lu, L., Liu, Y., Zhu, W., Shi, J., Liu, Y., Ling, W. & Kosten, T. R. (2009). Traditional medicine in the treatment of drug addiction. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 35, 1-11.
Lukas, S. E., Penetar, D., Berko, J., Vicens, L., Palmer, C., Mallya, G., Macklin, E. A. & Lee D. Y. (2005). An extract of the Chinese herbal root kudzu reduces alcohol drinking by heavy drinkers in a naturalistic setting. Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research, 29 (5), 756-62.
Luna, L. E. (1984). The Concept of Plants as Teachers Among Four Mestizo Shamans of Iquitos, Northeast Peru. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 11, 135-156.
Mabit, J. (1993). Adicción y shamanismo budista - El monasterio de las cuevas delbambú. Revista Takiwasi, 2, 57-78
Mabit, J. (2002). Interview de Jacques Mabit par Evelyne Sarah Mercier. Paris, France: ES Mercier.
Mabit, J. (2007). Ayahuasca in the treatment of addictions. M. J. Winkelman. & T. B. Roberts. (Eds), Psychedelic Medicine New Evidence for Hallucinogenic Substances as Treatments (pp. 87–103). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Mabit, J. & González, J. (2013). Hacia una medicina transcultural. Reflexiones y propuestas a partir de la experiencia en Takiwasi. Journal of Transpersonal Research, 5 (2), 49-76.
Manyam, B. V., Dhanasekaran, M. & Hare, T. A. (2004). Neuroprotective effects of the antiparkinson drug Mucuna pruriens. Phytother Res, 18, 706-12.
McGown, J. (2006). Out of Africa: Mysteries of Access and Benefit Sharing. Richmond, South Africa: African Centre for Biosafety.
Medsafe. (2009). Minutes of the 42nd Meeting of the Medicines Classification Committee. Recovered from http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/class/Agendas/agen42.htm.
Meletis, C. D. & Zabriskie, N. (2008). Natural Approaches to Treating Addiction. Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 14 (6), 275-81.
Merica, D. (2017). Trump declares opioid epidemic a national public health emergency. Recovered from https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/politics/donaldtrump-opioid-epidemic/index.html.
Morel, L. J., Giros, B. & Daugé, V. (2009). Adolescent Exposure to Chronic Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Blocks Opiate Dependence in Maternally Deprived Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34 (11), 2469-76.
Naranjo, C. (1969). Psychotherapeutic possibilities of new fantasy-enhancing drugs. Clinical Toxicology, 2, 209-24.
Naranjo, P. (1986). El Ayahuasca en la arqueología ecuatoriana. América Indígena, 46 (1), 117-127.
Nencini, P. (2002). The shaman and the rave party: social pharmacology of ecstasy. Substance Use & Misuse, 37 (8-10), 923-39.
Noller, G. E., Frampton, C. M., & Yazar-Klosinski, B. (2018). Ibogaine treatment outcomes for opioid dependence from a twelve-month follow-up observational study. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 44 (1), 37-46.
Ogalde, J. P., Arriaza, B. T. & Soto, E. C. (2009). Identification of psychoactive alkaloids in ancient Andean human hair by gas chromatography/massspectrometry. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36 (2), 467-72.
Paskulin, R., Jamnik, P., Živin, M., Raspor, P. & Štrukelj, B. (2006). Ibogaine affects brain energy metabolism. European Journal of Pharmacology, 15 (552), 11-4.
Penetar, D. M., Toto, L. H., Lee, D. Y. & Lukas, S. E. (2015). A Single Dose of Kudzu Extract Reduces Alcohol Consumption in a Binge Drinking Paradigm. Drug Alcohol Depend, 153,194-200.
Politi, M. (2018). Healing and Knowledge with Amazonian Shamanic Diet. Psychedelic Plant Medicine. Recovered from https://chacruna.net/healingknowledge-amazonian-shamanic-diet/.
Politi, M., Friso, F. & Mabit, J. (2018). Plant based assisted therapy for the treatment of substance use disorders - part 1. The case of Takiwasi Center and other similar experiences. Revista Cultura y Droga, 23 (26), 99-126. DOI: 10.17151/culdr.2018.23.26.7.
Reiman, A. (2009). Cannabis as a substitute for alcohol and other drugs. Harm Reduction Journal, 6 (35).
Romanoff, S. (2004). El uso de la medicina del sapo. In S. Romanoff (Ed), Matsesën Nampid Chuibanaid. La vida tradicional de los Matsés (pp. 120-122). Lima, Perú: CAAAP.
Sarkar, S. & Varshney, M. (2017). Yoga and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Asian J Psychiatr, 25,191-6.
Sarris, J., Stough, C., Bousman, C. A., Wahid, Z. T., Murray, G., Teschke, R., Savage, KM…,. Schweitzer, I. (2013). Kava in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. J ClinPsychopharmacol, 33 (5), 643-8.
Schenberg, E. E., Comis, M. A., Chaves, B. R. & Silveira, D. X. (2014). Treating drug dependence with the aid of ibogaine: A retrospective study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 28 (11), 993-1000.
Schep, L., Slaughter R., Galea, S. & Newcombe, D. (2016). Ibogaine for treating drug dependence. What is a safe dose? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 166 (1), 1-5.
Sen, S. & Chakraborty, R. (2017). Revival, modernization and integration of Indian traditional herbal medicine in clinical practice: importance, challenges and future. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 7 (2), 234-244.
Silva, J. (2017). Fighting addiction at a Thai monastery. Recovered from https://www.reuters.com/article/thailand-drugs-temple-int-idUSKBN18617D.
Steiner, G. G. (2001). Kava as an anticraving agent: Preliminary data. Pac Health Dialog, 8, 335-9.
Talin, P. & Sanabria, E. (2017). Ayahuasca’s entwined efficacy: An ethnographic study of ritual healing from “addiction”. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 44, 23-30.
Terburg, D., Syal, S., Rosenberg, L. A., Heany, S., Phillips, N., Gericke, N., Stein, D. J. & Van Honk, J. (2013). Acute effects of Sceletium tortuosum (Zembrin), a dual 5-HT reuptake and PDE4 inhibitor, in the human amygdala and its connection to the hypothalamus. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38 (13), 2708-16.
Thomas, K., Malcolm, B. & Lastra, D. (2017). Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy: A Review of a Novel Treatment for Psychiatric Disorders. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 49 (5), 446-455.
Ujváry, I. (2014). Psychoactive natural products: overview of recent developments. Ann Ist Super Sanità, 50 (1), 12-27.
Walsh, Z., Gonzalez, R., Crosby, K. S., Thiessen, M., Carroll, C. & Bonn-Miller, M. O. (2017). Medical cannabis and mental health: A guided systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 51,15-29.
Wen, H. & Hockenberry, J. M. (2018). Association of Medical and Adult-Use Marijuana Laws With Opioid Prescribing for Medicaid Enrollees. JAMA Intern Med, 178 (5), 673-9.
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Yarnell, E. & Abascal, K. (2001). Botanical Remedies for Nicotine Addiction. Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 7 (6), 337-40.
Zhu, W., Zhang, Y., Huang, Y. & Lu, L. (2017). Chinese Herbal Medicine for the Treatment of Drug Addiction. Int Rev Neurobiol, 135, 279-95.
Aleem, Z. (2018). 14 years after decriminalizing all drugs, here’s what Portugal looks like. Recovered from https://mic.com/articles/110344/14-years-afterportugal-decriminalized-all-drugs-here-s-what-shappening#.mhCFjMGkf.
Almendro, M. & López, E. (2016). Beyond Frontiers: Meditative Practice, Clinical Practice and Scientific Research. J Psychol Psychother, 6, 281.
Conselho Estadual de Políticas Sobre Drogas. (2016). 126 (8), Seção I quintafeira. São Paulo: Diário Oficial Poder Executivo. Recovered from https://www.ibogainealliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/CONSELHO-ESTADUALDE-POL%C3%8DTICAS-SOBRE-DROGAS.pdf.
Babor, T., Caulkins, J., Edwards, G., Fischer, B., Foxcroft, D. & Humphreys, K. (2010). Drug policy and the public good. New York: Oxford University Press.
Benfer, I., Zahnow, R., Barratt, M., Maier, L., Winstock, A. & Ferris, J. (2018). The impact of drug policy liberalisation on willingness to seek help for problem drug use: A comparison of 20 countries. International Journal of Drug Policy, 56, 162–75.
Bradford, A. C., Bradford, D., Abraham, A. J. & Bagwell Adams, G. (2018). Association Between US State Medical Cannabis Laws and Opioid Prescribing in the Medicare Part D Population. JAMA Intern Med, 178 (5), 667-72.
Bogenschutz, M. P. & Ross, S. (2018). Therapeutic Applications of Classic Hallucinogens. Current topics in behavioral neurosciences, 36, 361-391.
Bouso Saiz, J, C. (2012). Personalidad, Psicopatología y rendimiento neuropsicológico de los consumidores rituales de ayahuasca (tesis doctoral). Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, España.
Bridgeman, M. B. & Abazia, D. T. (2017). Medicinal Cannabis: History, Pharmacology, and Implications for the Acute Care Setting. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 42 (3), 180-8.
Brave, P. S., Bruins, E. & Bronkhorst, M. W. (2014). Phyllomedusa bicolor skin secretion and the Kambô ritual. The journal of venomous animals and toxins including tropical diseases, 20, (40).
Dhawan, K. (2003). Drug/substance reversal effects of a novel tri-substituted benzoflavone moiety (BZF) isolated from Passiflora incarnata Linn.-a brief perspective. Addict Biol, 8, 379-86.
Dhawan, K., Kumar, S. & Sharma, A. (2002). Suppression of alcohol-cessationoriented hyper-anxiety by the benzoflavone moiety of Passiflora incarnata Linneaus in mice. J Ethnopharmacol, 81, 239-44.
Fernandez, J. W. (1982). Bwiti: An Ethnography of The Religious Imagination in Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ferreira, S. (2017). Portugal’s radical drugs policy is working. Why hasn’t the world copied it?. Recovered from https://www.theguardian.com/news/2017/dec/05/portugals-radical-drugs-policy-is-working-why-hasnt-the-world-copied-it.
Frecska, E., Bokor, P. & Winkelman, M. (2016). The Therapeutic Potentials of Ayahuasca: Possible Effects against Various Diseases of Civilization. Front. Pharmacol, 7 (35).
Garland, E. L. & Howard, M. O. (2018). Mindfulness-based treatment of addiction: current state of the field and envisioning the next wave of research. Addict Sci Clin Pract, 13 (1), 14.
Gorman, P. (1993). Making Magic. Recovered from http://www.artoftransformations.com/files/Making-Magic-by-Peter-Gorman.pdf.
Grant, S., Kandrack, R., Motala, A., Shanman, R., Booth, M., Miles, J., Sorbero,
M…,. & Hempel, S. (2016). Acupuncture for substance use disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drug Alcohol Depend, 163,1-15.
Habib, G. & Artul, S. (2018). Medical Cannabis for the Treatment of Fibromyalgia. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology, 24 (5), 255–258.
Heggenhougen, H. K. (1984). Traditional medicine and the treatment of drug addicts: three examples from Southeast Asia. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 16 (1), 3-7.
Hinojosa, O. R. (2017). OTAC: Toad Medicine and its Role in Modern World. Paper presented at the International Transpersonal Conference, Prague.
Hohmann, L., Bradt, J., Stegemann, T. & Koelsch, S. (2017). Effects of music therapy and music-based interventions in the treatment of substance use disorders: A systematic review. PLoS One, 12 (11).
ICEERS. (2017). Risks associated with combining Bufo Alvarius with ayahuasca. International Center for Ethnobotanical Education Research and Service. Recovered from http://news.iceers.org/2017/05/alert-bufo-alvarius-andayahuasca/.
Labate, B. & Cavnar, C. (2018). The Expanding World Ayahuasca Diaspora: Appropriation, Integration and Legislation. London: Routledge.
Labate, B. & Coffaci de Lima, E. (2014). Medical Drug or Shamanic Power Plant: The Uses of Kambô in Brazil. Ponto Urbe [Online], 15. DOI: 10.4000/pontourbe.2384.
Levinson, J. (2018). Opioid addicts are turning to a clinic in Mexico to break their addiction, but there’s a catch. GlobalPost. Recovered from https://www.pri.org/stories/2018-03-06/opioid-addicts-are-turning-clinic-mexico-break-theiraddiction-theres-catch.
Llagostera, A., Torres, M. C. & Costa, M. A. (1988). El complejo psicotrópico en Scolor-3 (San Pedro de Atacama). Estudios Atacámenos, 9, 61-98.
Lu, L., Liu, Y., Zhu, W., Shi, J., Liu, Y., Ling, W. & Kosten, T. R. (2009). Traditional medicine in the treatment of drug addiction. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 35, 1-11.
Lukas, S. E., Penetar, D., Berko, J., Vicens, L., Palmer, C., Mallya, G., Macklin, E. A. & Lee D. Y. (2005). An extract of the Chinese herbal root kudzu reduces alcohol drinking by heavy drinkers in a naturalistic setting. Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research, 29 (5), 756-62.
Luna, L. E. (1984). The Concept of Plants as Teachers Among Four Mestizo Shamans of Iquitos, Northeast Peru. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 11, 135-156.
Mabit, J. (1993). Adicción y shamanismo budista - El monasterio de las cuevas delbambú. Revista Takiwasi, 2, 57-78
Mabit, J. (2002). Interview de Jacques Mabit par Evelyne Sarah Mercier. Paris, France: ES Mercier.
Mabit, J. (2007). Ayahuasca in the treatment of addictions. M. J. Winkelman. & T. B. Roberts. (Eds), Psychedelic Medicine New Evidence for Hallucinogenic Substances as Treatments (pp. 87–103). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Mabit, J. & González, J. (2013). Hacia una medicina transcultural. Reflexiones y propuestas a partir de la experiencia en Takiwasi. Journal of Transpersonal Research, 5 (2), 49-76.
Manyam, B. V., Dhanasekaran, M. & Hare, T. A. (2004). Neuroprotective effects of the antiparkinson drug Mucuna pruriens. Phytother Res, 18, 706-12.
McGown, J. (2006). Out of Africa: Mysteries of Access and Benefit Sharing. Richmond, South Africa: African Centre for Biosafety.
Medsafe. (2009). Minutes of the 42nd Meeting of the Medicines Classification Committee. Recovered from http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/class/Agendas/agen42.htm.
Meletis, C. D. & Zabriskie, N. (2008). Natural Approaches to Treating Addiction. Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 14 (6), 275-81.
Merica, D. (2017). Trump declares opioid epidemic a national public health emergency. Recovered from https://edition.cnn.com/2017/10/26/politics/donaldtrump-opioid-epidemic/index.html.
Morel, L. J., Giros, B. & Daugé, V. (2009). Adolescent Exposure to Chronic Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Blocks Opiate Dependence in Maternally Deprived Rats. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34 (11), 2469-76.
Naranjo, C. (1969). Psychotherapeutic possibilities of new fantasy-enhancing drugs. Clinical Toxicology, 2, 209-24.
Naranjo, P. (1986). El Ayahuasca en la arqueología ecuatoriana. América Indígena, 46 (1), 117-127.
Nencini, P. (2002). The shaman and the rave party: social pharmacology of ecstasy. Substance Use & Misuse, 37 (8-10), 923-39.
Noller, G. E., Frampton, C. M., & Yazar-Klosinski, B. (2018). Ibogaine treatment outcomes for opioid dependence from a twelve-month follow-up observational study. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 44 (1), 37-46.
Ogalde, J. P., Arriaza, B. T. & Soto, E. C. (2009). Identification of psychoactive alkaloids in ancient Andean human hair by gas chromatography/massspectrometry. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36 (2), 467-72.
Paskulin, R., Jamnik, P., Živin, M., Raspor, P. & Štrukelj, B. (2006). Ibogaine affects brain energy metabolism. European Journal of Pharmacology, 15 (552), 11-4.
Penetar, D. M., Toto, L. H., Lee, D. Y. & Lukas, S. E. (2015). A Single Dose of Kudzu Extract Reduces Alcohol Consumption in a Binge Drinking Paradigm. Drug Alcohol Depend, 153,194-200.
Politi, M. (2018). Healing and Knowledge with Amazonian Shamanic Diet. Psychedelic Plant Medicine. Recovered from https://chacruna.net/healingknowledge-amazonian-shamanic-diet/.
Politi, M., Friso, F. & Mabit, J. (2018). Plant based assisted therapy for the treatment of substance use disorders - part 1. The case of Takiwasi Center and other similar experiences. Revista Cultura y Droga, 23 (26), 99-126. DOI: 10.17151/culdr.2018.23.26.7.
Reiman, A. (2009). Cannabis as a substitute for alcohol and other drugs. Harm Reduction Journal, 6 (35).
Romanoff, S. (2004). El uso de la medicina del sapo. In S. Romanoff (Ed), Matsesën Nampid Chuibanaid. La vida tradicional de los Matsés (pp. 120-122). Lima, Perú: CAAAP.
Sarkar, S. & Varshney, M. (2017). Yoga and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Asian J Psychiatr, 25,191-6.
Sarris, J., Stough, C., Bousman, C. A., Wahid, Z. T., Murray, G., Teschke, R., Savage, KM…,. Schweitzer, I. (2013). Kava in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. J ClinPsychopharmacol, 33 (5), 643-8.
Schenberg, E. E., Comis, M. A., Chaves, B. R. & Silveira, D. X. (2014). Treating drug dependence with the aid of ibogaine: A retrospective study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 28 (11), 993-1000.
Schep, L., Slaughter R., Galea, S. & Newcombe, D. (2016). Ibogaine for treating drug dependence. What is a safe dose? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 166 (1), 1-5.
Sen, S. & Chakraborty, R. (2017). Revival, modernization and integration of Indian traditional herbal medicine in clinical practice: importance, challenges and future. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 7 (2), 234-244.
Silva, J. (2017). Fighting addiction at a Thai monastery. Recovered from https://www.reuters.com/article/thailand-drugs-temple-int-idUSKBN18617D.
Steiner, G. G. (2001). Kava as an anticraving agent: Preliminary data. Pac Health Dialog, 8, 335-9.
Talin, P. & Sanabria, E. (2017). Ayahuasca’s entwined efficacy: An ethnographic study of ritual healing from “addiction”. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 44, 23-30.
Terburg, D., Syal, S., Rosenberg, L. A., Heany, S., Phillips, N., Gericke, N., Stein, D. J. & Van Honk, J. (2013). Acute effects of Sceletium tortuosum (Zembrin), a dual 5-HT reuptake and PDE4 inhibitor, in the human amygdala and its connection to the hypothalamus. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38 (13), 2708-16.
Thomas, K., Malcolm, B. & Lastra, D. (2017). Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy: A Review of a Novel Treatment for Psychiatric Disorders. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 49 (5), 446-455.
Ujváry, I. (2014). Psychoactive natural products: overview of recent developments. Ann Ist Super Sanità, 50 (1), 12-27.
Walsh, Z., Gonzalez, R., Crosby, K. S., Thiessen, M., Carroll, C. & Bonn-Miller, M. O. (2017). Medical cannabis and mental health: A guided systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 51,15-29.
Wen, H. & Hockenberry, J. M. (2018). Association of Medical and Adult-Use Marijuana Laws With Opioid Prescribing for Medicaid Enrollees. JAMA Intern Med, 178 (5), 673-9.
WHO. (2016). Management of substance abuse: cannabis. World Health Organization. Recovered from www.who.int/substance_abuse/facts/cannabis/en.2016.
Winkelman, M. (2014). Psychedelics as medicines for substance abuse rehabilitation: evaluating treatments with LSD, Peyote, Ibogaine and Ayahuasca. Curr Drug Abuse Rev, 7 (2),101-16.
Yarnell, E. & Abascal, K. (2001). Botanical Remedies for Nicotine Addiction. Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 7 (6), 337-40.
Zhu, W., Zhang, Y., Huang, Y. & Lu, L. (2017). Chinese Herbal Medicine for the Treatment of Drug Addiction. Int Rev Neurobiol, 135, 279-95.
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