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Fecha Publicación: 2010-07-01
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Bedoya Patiño, J. G., Estévez Varón, J. V., & Castaño Villa, G. J. (2010). Banco de semillas del suelo y su papel en la recuperación de los bosques tropicales. Boletín Científico Centro De Museos Museo De Historia Natural, 14(2), 77–91. Recuperado a partir de https://revistasojs.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/boletincientifico/article/view/5260
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Dada las altas tasas de deforestación de los bosques tropicales y sus efectos sobre la diversidad biológica, entre otros, la recuperación de la cobertura vegetal es una labor que debe afrontarse en el tiempo presente. Por tanto, conocer los factores que determinan el surgimiento en forma natural de la vegetación, permite planear y dirigir mejor los esfuerzos de restauración. En este sentido, estudiar el banco de semillas del suelo brinda información acerca del estado de la sucesión vegetal, de las especies potencialmente capaces de reemplazar a las existentes y del tipo de especies que componen la vegetación presente y circundante, así como su relación con la fauna silvestre. En el presente artículo, se presenta una descripción sobre el significado y la importancia del banco de semillas en el trópico, de sus características, de los factores determinantes para su existencia y de su aporte en la restauración y conservación. También, se enuncian algunos aspectos relacionados con el banco de semillas para investigaciones futuras tales como: fisiología de semillas tropicales y el papel de los animales que actúan como dispersores de semillas.
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AIDE, T.M. & CAVELIER, J., 1994. Barriers to lowland forest tropical restoration in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Rest. Ecol., 2: 219-229.
ÁLVAREZ-AQUINO, C.; WILLIAMS-LINERA, G. & NEWTON, A.C., 2005. Disturbance effects on the seed bank of Mexican cloud forest fragments. Biotropica, 37 (3): 337-342.
ARBELÁEZ, M.V. & PARRADO-R., A. 2005. Seed dispersal modes of the sandstone plateau vegetation of the middle Caquetá river region, Colombian Amazonia. Biotropica, 37 (1): 64-72.
ASQUITH, N.M., 2002. La dinámica del bosque y la diversidad arbórea: 377-406 (en) GUARIGUATA, M.R. & KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
BAKER, H.G., 1989. Some aspects of the natural history of the seed banks: 9-21 (en) LECK, M.A.; PARKER, V. & SIMPSON R.L. (eds). Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
BASKIN, C.C. & BASKIN, J.M. 1989. Physiology of dormancy and germination in relation to seed bank ecology: 53-66 (en) LECK, M.A., PARKER, V.T. & SIMPSON, R.L. (eds) Ecology of Soil Seed Banks. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
BIGWOOD, D.B. & INOUYE, D.W., 1988. Spatial pattern analysis of seed banks: an improved method and optimized sampling. Ecology, 69: 497-507.
CARDONA, C.A. & VARGAS, O.R., 2004. Plántulas procedentes del banco de semillas germinable de un bosque subandino. Pérez-Arbelaezia, 15: 113-149.
COLE, R.J., 2009. Post-dispersal seed fate of tropical montane trees in an agricultural landscape, southern Costa Rica: 64-99 (en) Ecological and socioeconomic aspects of restoring forest in a tropical agricultural landscape, southern Costa Rica. Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES. University of California, Santa Cruz.
CUBIÑA, A. & AIDE, T.M., 2001. The effect of distance from forest edge on seed rain and soil seed bank in a tropical pasture. Biotropica, 33 (2): 260-267.
CHANDRASHEKARA, U.M. & RAMAKRISHNAN, P.S., 1993. Germinable Soil Seed Bank Dynamics During the Gap Phase of a Humid Tropical Forest in the Western Ghats of Kerala, India. J. Trop. Ecol., 9 (4): 455-467.
DALLING, J.W., 2002. Ecología de semillas: 345-375 (en) GUARIGUATA, M.R. & KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
DALLING, J.W. & DENSLOW, J.S., 1998. Soil seed bank composition along a forest chronosequence in seasonally moist tropical forest, Panama. J. Veg. Sci., 9: 669-678.
DALLING, J.W. & HUBBELL S.P., 2002. Seed size, growth rate and gap microsite conditions as determinants of recruitment success for pioneer species. The J. of Ecol., 90 (3): 557-568.
DALLING, J.W.; SWAINE, M.D. & GARWOOD, N.C., 1998. Dispersal patterns and seed bank dynamics of pioneer trees in moist tropical forest. Ecology, 79 (2): 564-578.
DUPUY, J.M. & CHAZDON, R.L., 1998. Long-term effects or forest regrowth and selective logging on the seed bank of tropical forests in northeastern Costa Rica. Biotropica, 30 (2): 223-237.
ENCISO, J.; GARCÍA-FAYOS, P. & CERDA, A., 2000. Distribución del banco de semillas en taludes de carretera: efecto de la orientación y de la topografía. Orsis, 15: 103-113.
GARWOOD, N.C., 1989. Tropical soil seed banks: a review: 149-209 (en) LEEK, M.A.; PARKER, V.T & SIMPSON, R.L. (eds.) Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
GENTRY, A.H., 1982. Patterns of neotropical plant species diversity. Evol. Biol., 15: 1-84.
GLENN-LEWIN, D.C. & VAN DER MAAREL, E., 1992. Patterns and processes of vegetation dynamics: 13-59 (en) GLENN-LEWIN, D.C.; PEET, R.K. & VEBLEN, T.T. (eds.) Plant Succession. Theory and prediction. Champan & Hall, London.
GUARIGUATA, M.R., 2000. Seed and seedling ecology of tree species in neotropical secondary forests: Management implications. Ecol. Appl., 10 (1): 145-154.
GUARIGUATA, M.R. & OSTERTAG, R., 2002. Sucesión secundaria: 591-623 (en) GUARIGUATA, M.R. &KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
HOLL, K.D., 1999. Factors limiting tropical rain forest regeneration in abandoned pasture: seed rain, seed germination, microclimate, and soil. Biotropica, 31: 229-242.
________., 2002. Effect of shrubs on tree seedling establishment in an abandoned tropical pasture. J. of Ecol., 90: 179-187.
HONU, Y.A.K., & DANG, Q.L., 2002. Spatial distribution and species composition of tree seeds and seedlings under the canopy of the shrub Cromolaena odorota Linn., in Ghana. For. Ecol. Man., 164: 185-196.
HOPFENSPERGER, K.N., 2007. A review of similarity between seed bank and standing vegetation across ecosystems. Oikos, 116: 1438-1448.
HOWE, H.F. & SMALLWOOD, J., 1982. Ecology of seed dispersal. Ann. Rev. of Ecol. and Syst., 13: 201-228.
KHURANA, E. & SINGH, J.S., 2001. Ecology of tree seed and seedlings: Implications for tropical forest conservation and restoration. Curr. Scien., 80 (6): 748-757.
LEVEY, D.J. & BYRNE, M.M., 1993. Complex Ant-Plant Interactions: Rain-Forest Ants as Secondary Dispersers and Post-Dispersal Seed Predators. Ecology, 74 (6): 1802-1812.
LUZURIAGA, A.L.; ESCUDERO, A.; OLANO, J.M. & LOIDI, J., 2005. Regenerative role of seed banks following an intense soil disturbance. Acta Oecol., 27: 57-66.
MIDDLETON, B.A., 2003. Soil seed banks and the potential restoration of forested wetlands after farming. J. of Applied Ecol., 4: 1025-1034.
MILLER, P.M., 1999. Effects of Deforestation on Seed Banks in a Tropical Deciduous Forest of Western Mexico. J. of Trop. Ecol., 15 (2): 179-188.
MOLES, A.T.; HODSON, D.W. & WEBB, C.J., 2000. Seed size and shape and persistence in the soil in the New Zealand flora. Oikos, 89: 541-545.
MOLOSFKY, J. & AUGSPURGER, K.C., 1992. The effect of leaf litter on early seedling establishment in a tropical forest. Ecol., 73: 68-77.
MOSCOSO M., L.B. & DIEZ-GÓMEZ, M.C., 2005. Banco de semillas en un bosque de roble de la Cordillera Central colombiana. Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr., Medellín, 58 (2): 2931-2943.
MUÑIZ-CASTRO, M.A.; WILLIAMS-LINERA, G. & REY B., J.M., 2006. Distance effect from cloud forest fragments on plant community structure in abandoned pastures in Veracruz, Mexico. J. of Trop. Ecol., 22: 431-440.
PARKER, V.; SIMPSON R. & LECK, M., 1989. Pattern and process in the dynamics of seed banks: 367-384 (en) LECK, M.A.; PARKER, V. & SIMPSON, R.L. (eds.) Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
PÉREZ, E.M. & SANTIAGO, E.T., 2001. Dinámica Estacional del Banco de Semillas en una Sabana en los Llanos Centro-Orientales de Venezuela. Biotropica, 33 (3): 435-446.
PIUDO, M.J. & CAVERO, R.Y., 2005. Banco de semillas: comparación de metodologías de extracción, de densidad y de profundidad de muestreo. Public. de Biol., Univ. de Navarra., Serie Botánica, 16: 71-85.
PONCE-SANTIZO, G.; ANDRESEN, E.; CANO, E. & CUARÓN, A.D., 2006. Dispersión primaria de semillas por primates y dispersión secundaria por escarabajos coprófagos en Tikal, Guatemala. Biotropica., 38 (3): 390-397.
QUINTANA-ASCENCIO P.F.; GONZÁLEZ-ESPINOSA M.; RAMÍREZ- MARCIAL N.; DOMÍNGUEZ-VÁZQUEZ G. & MARTINEZ-ICO, M., 1996. Soil seed banks and regeneration of tropical rain forest from milpa fields at the Selva Lacandona, Chiapas, México. Biotropica., 28 (2): 192-209.
SAULEI, S.M. & M.D. SWAINE., 1988. Rain forest seed dynamics during succession at Gogol, Papua New Guinea. J. Ecol., 76: 1133-1152.
SCATENA, F.N., 2002. El bosque neotropical desde una perspectiva jerárquica: 23-41 (en): GUARIGUATA, M.R. & KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
SIMPSON, R.L.; LECK, M.A. & PARKER V.T., 1989. Seed banks: General Concepts and methodological issues: 3-8 (en) LECK, M.A.; PARKER, V. & SIMPSON R.L. (eds.) Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
SINGHAKUMARA, B.M.P.; UDUPORUWA, R.S.J.P. & ASHTON, P.M.S., 2000. Soil seed banks in relation to light and topographic position of a hill dipterocarp forest in Sri Lanka. Biotropica, 32 (1): 190-196.
TANG, Y.; CAO, M. & FU, X., 2006. Soil seed bank in a dipterocarp rain forest in Xishuangbanna, southwest China. Biotropica, 38 (3): 328-333.
TEKLE, K. & BEKELE, T., 2000. The Role of Soil Seed Banks in the Rehabilitation of Degraded Hillslopes in Southern Wello, Ethiopia. Biotropica, 32 (1): 23-32.
THOMPSON, K., 1987. Seeds and seed banks. New Phytol., 106 (Suppl.): 23-34.
________., 2000. The functional ecology of seed banks: 215-235 (en) FENNER M. (ed.) Seeds: The ecology of regeneration in plant communities. 2nd edition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
THOMPSON, K.; BAND, S.R. & HODGSON, J.G., 1993. Seed Size and Shape Predict Persistence in Soil. Funct. Ecol., 7 (2): 236-241.
UHL, C.; BUSCHBACHER, R. & SERRAO, E.A.S., 1988. Abandoned pastures in eastern Amazonia. I. Patterns of plant succession. J. Ecol., 73: 663-681.
VAN DER VALK, A.G., 1992. Establishment, colonization and persistence: 60-102 (en) GLENN-LEWIN, D.C.; PEET R.K. & VEBLEN T.T. (eds.) Plant Succesión: Theory and prediction. Chapman & Hill, London.
VIEIRA, I.C.G.; UHL, C. & NEPSTAD, D., 1994. The role of the shrub Cordia multispicata Cham. as a ‘succession facilitator’ in an abandoned pasture, Paragominas, Amazonia. Veg., 115: 91-99.
WENNY, D.G., 2000. Seed dispersal, seed predation, and seedling recruitment of a neotropical montane tree. Ecol. Mon., 70 (2): 331-351.
WIJDEVEN, S.M.J. & KUZEE, M.E., 2000. Seed availability as a limiting factor in forest recovery processes in Costa Rica. Rest. Ecol., 8 (4): 414-424.
WILLIAMS-LINERA, G., 1993. Soil seed banks in four lower montane forests of Mexico. J. Trop. Ecol., 9: 321-337.
ÁLVAREZ-AQUINO, C.; WILLIAMS-LINERA, G. & NEWTON, A.C., 2005. Disturbance effects on the seed bank of Mexican cloud forest fragments. Biotropica, 37 (3): 337-342.
ARBELÁEZ, M.V. & PARRADO-R., A. 2005. Seed dispersal modes of the sandstone plateau vegetation of the middle Caquetá river region, Colombian Amazonia. Biotropica, 37 (1): 64-72.
ASQUITH, N.M., 2002. La dinámica del bosque y la diversidad arbórea: 377-406 (en) GUARIGUATA, M.R. & KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
BAKER, H.G., 1989. Some aspects of the natural history of the seed banks: 9-21 (en) LECK, M.A.; PARKER, V. & SIMPSON R.L. (eds). Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
BASKIN, C.C. & BASKIN, J.M. 1989. Physiology of dormancy and germination in relation to seed bank ecology: 53-66 (en) LECK, M.A., PARKER, V.T. & SIMPSON, R.L. (eds) Ecology of Soil Seed Banks. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
BIGWOOD, D.B. & INOUYE, D.W., 1988. Spatial pattern analysis of seed banks: an improved method and optimized sampling. Ecology, 69: 497-507.
CARDONA, C.A. & VARGAS, O.R., 2004. Plántulas procedentes del banco de semillas germinable de un bosque subandino. Pérez-Arbelaezia, 15: 113-149.
COLE, R.J., 2009. Post-dispersal seed fate of tropical montane trees in an agricultural landscape, southern Costa Rica: 64-99 (en) Ecological and socioeconomic aspects of restoring forest in a tropical agricultural landscape, southern Costa Rica. Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES. University of California, Santa Cruz.
CUBIÑA, A. & AIDE, T.M., 2001. The effect of distance from forest edge on seed rain and soil seed bank in a tropical pasture. Biotropica, 33 (2): 260-267.
CHANDRASHEKARA, U.M. & RAMAKRISHNAN, P.S., 1993. Germinable Soil Seed Bank Dynamics During the Gap Phase of a Humid Tropical Forest in the Western Ghats of Kerala, India. J. Trop. Ecol., 9 (4): 455-467.
DALLING, J.W., 2002. Ecología de semillas: 345-375 (en) GUARIGUATA, M.R. & KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
DALLING, J.W. & DENSLOW, J.S., 1998. Soil seed bank composition along a forest chronosequence in seasonally moist tropical forest, Panama. J. Veg. Sci., 9: 669-678.
DALLING, J.W. & HUBBELL S.P., 2002. Seed size, growth rate and gap microsite conditions as determinants of recruitment success for pioneer species. The J. of Ecol., 90 (3): 557-568.
DALLING, J.W.; SWAINE, M.D. & GARWOOD, N.C., 1998. Dispersal patterns and seed bank dynamics of pioneer trees in moist tropical forest. Ecology, 79 (2): 564-578.
DUPUY, J.M. & CHAZDON, R.L., 1998. Long-term effects or forest regrowth and selective logging on the seed bank of tropical forests in northeastern Costa Rica. Biotropica, 30 (2): 223-237.
ENCISO, J.; GARCÍA-FAYOS, P. & CERDA, A., 2000. Distribución del banco de semillas en taludes de carretera: efecto de la orientación y de la topografía. Orsis, 15: 103-113.
GARWOOD, N.C., 1989. Tropical soil seed banks: a review: 149-209 (en) LEEK, M.A.; PARKER, V.T & SIMPSON, R.L. (eds.) Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
GENTRY, A.H., 1982. Patterns of neotropical plant species diversity. Evol. Biol., 15: 1-84.
GLENN-LEWIN, D.C. & VAN DER MAAREL, E., 1992. Patterns and processes of vegetation dynamics: 13-59 (en) GLENN-LEWIN, D.C.; PEET, R.K. & VEBLEN, T.T. (eds.) Plant Succession. Theory and prediction. Champan & Hall, London.
GUARIGUATA, M.R., 2000. Seed and seedling ecology of tree species in neotropical secondary forests: Management implications. Ecol. Appl., 10 (1): 145-154.
GUARIGUATA, M.R. & OSTERTAG, R., 2002. Sucesión secundaria: 591-623 (en) GUARIGUATA, M.R. &KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
HOLL, K.D., 1999. Factors limiting tropical rain forest regeneration in abandoned pasture: seed rain, seed germination, microclimate, and soil. Biotropica, 31: 229-242.
________., 2002. Effect of shrubs on tree seedling establishment in an abandoned tropical pasture. J. of Ecol., 90: 179-187.
HONU, Y.A.K., & DANG, Q.L., 2002. Spatial distribution and species composition of tree seeds and seedlings under the canopy of the shrub Cromolaena odorota Linn., in Ghana. For. Ecol. Man., 164: 185-196.
HOPFENSPERGER, K.N., 2007. A review of similarity between seed bank and standing vegetation across ecosystems. Oikos, 116: 1438-1448.
HOWE, H.F. & SMALLWOOD, J., 1982. Ecology of seed dispersal. Ann. Rev. of Ecol. and Syst., 13: 201-228.
KHURANA, E. & SINGH, J.S., 2001. Ecology of tree seed and seedlings: Implications for tropical forest conservation and restoration. Curr. Scien., 80 (6): 748-757.
LEVEY, D.J. & BYRNE, M.M., 1993. Complex Ant-Plant Interactions: Rain-Forest Ants as Secondary Dispersers and Post-Dispersal Seed Predators. Ecology, 74 (6): 1802-1812.
LUZURIAGA, A.L.; ESCUDERO, A.; OLANO, J.M. & LOIDI, J., 2005. Regenerative role of seed banks following an intense soil disturbance. Acta Oecol., 27: 57-66.
MIDDLETON, B.A., 2003. Soil seed banks and the potential restoration of forested wetlands after farming. J. of Applied Ecol., 4: 1025-1034.
MILLER, P.M., 1999. Effects of Deforestation on Seed Banks in a Tropical Deciduous Forest of Western Mexico. J. of Trop. Ecol., 15 (2): 179-188.
MOLES, A.T.; HODSON, D.W. & WEBB, C.J., 2000. Seed size and shape and persistence in the soil in the New Zealand flora. Oikos, 89: 541-545.
MOLOSFKY, J. & AUGSPURGER, K.C., 1992. The effect of leaf litter on early seedling establishment in a tropical forest. Ecol., 73: 68-77.
MOSCOSO M., L.B. & DIEZ-GÓMEZ, M.C., 2005. Banco de semillas en un bosque de roble de la Cordillera Central colombiana. Rev. Fac. Nal. Agr., Medellín, 58 (2): 2931-2943.
MUÑIZ-CASTRO, M.A.; WILLIAMS-LINERA, G. & REY B., J.M., 2006. Distance effect from cloud forest fragments on plant community structure in abandoned pastures in Veracruz, Mexico. J. of Trop. Ecol., 22: 431-440.
PARKER, V.; SIMPSON R. & LECK, M., 1989. Pattern and process in the dynamics of seed banks: 367-384 (en) LECK, M.A.; PARKER, V. & SIMPSON, R.L. (eds.) Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
PÉREZ, E.M. & SANTIAGO, E.T., 2001. Dinámica Estacional del Banco de Semillas en una Sabana en los Llanos Centro-Orientales de Venezuela. Biotropica, 33 (3): 435-446.
PIUDO, M.J. & CAVERO, R.Y., 2005. Banco de semillas: comparación de metodologías de extracción, de densidad y de profundidad de muestreo. Public. de Biol., Univ. de Navarra., Serie Botánica, 16: 71-85.
PONCE-SANTIZO, G.; ANDRESEN, E.; CANO, E. & CUARÓN, A.D., 2006. Dispersión primaria de semillas por primates y dispersión secundaria por escarabajos coprófagos en Tikal, Guatemala. Biotropica., 38 (3): 390-397.
QUINTANA-ASCENCIO P.F.; GONZÁLEZ-ESPINOSA M.; RAMÍREZ- MARCIAL N.; DOMÍNGUEZ-VÁZQUEZ G. & MARTINEZ-ICO, M., 1996. Soil seed banks and regeneration of tropical rain forest from milpa fields at the Selva Lacandona, Chiapas, México. Biotropica., 28 (2): 192-209.
SAULEI, S.M. & M.D. SWAINE., 1988. Rain forest seed dynamics during succession at Gogol, Papua New Guinea. J. Ecol., 76: 1133-1152.
SCATENA, F.N., 2002. El bosque neotropical desde una perspectiva jerárquica: 23-41 (en): GUARIGUATA, M.R. & KATTAN, G.H. (eds.) Ecología y Conservación de bosques neotropicales. Primera edición. Ediciones LUR.
SIMPSON, R.L.; LECK, M.A. & PARKER V.T., 1989. Seed banks: General Concepts and methodological issues: 3-8 (en) LECK, M.A.; PARKER, V. & SIMPSON R.L. (eds.) Ecology of soil seed banks. Academic Press INC., San Diego, California.
SINGHAKUMARA, B.M.P.; UDUPORUWA, R.S.J.P. & ASHTON, P.M.S., 2000. Soil seed banks in relation to light and topographic position of a hill dipterocarp forest in Sri Lanka. Biotropica, 32 (1): 190-196.
TANG, Y.; CAO, M. & FU, X., 2006. Soil seed bank in a dipterocarp rain forest in Xishuangbanna, southwest China. Biotropica, 38 (3): 328-333.
TEKLE, K. & BEKELE, T., 2000. The Role of Soil Seed Banks in the Rehabilitation of Degraded Hillslopes in Southern Wello, Ethiopia. Biotropica, 32 (1): 23-32.
THOMPSON, K., 1987. Seeds and seed banks. New Phytol., 106 (Suppl.): 23-34.
________., 2000. The functional ecology of seed banks: 215-235 (en) FENNER M. (ed.) Seeds: The ecology of regeneration in plant communities. 2nd edition. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
THOMPSON, K.; BAND, S.R. & HODGSON, J.G., 1993. Seed Size and Shape Predict Persistence in Soil. Funct. Ecol., 7 (2): 236-241.
UHL, C.; BUSCHBACHER, R. & SERRAO, E.A.S., 1988. Abandoned pastures in eastern Amazonia. I. Patterns of plant succession. J. Ecol., 73: 663-681.
VAN DER VALK, A.G., 1992. Establishment, colonization and persistence: 60-102 (en) GLENN-LEWIN, D.C.; PEET R.K. & VEBLEN T.T. (eds.) Plant Succesión: Theory and prediction. Chapman & Hill, London.
VIEIRA, I.C.G.; UHL, C. & NEPSTAD, D., 1994. The role of the shrub Cordia multispicata Cham. as a ‘succession facilitator’ in an abandoned pasture, Paragominas, Amazonia. Veg., 115: 91-99.
WENNY, D.G., 2000. Seed dispersal, seed predation, and seedling recruitment of a neotropical montane tree. Ecol. Mon., 70 (2): 331-351.
WIJDEVEN, S.M.J. & KUZEE, M.E., 2000. Seed availability as a limiting factor in forest recovery processes in Costa Rica. Rest. Ecol., 8 (4): 414-424.
WILLIAMS-LINERA, G., 1993. Soil seed banks in four lower montane forests of Mexico. J. Trop. Ecol., 9: 321-337.
